[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:04.64,0:00:08.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Eurasia: the world's largest land mass.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:10.43,0:00:14.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some 10,000 kilometers from the Pacific\Nto the Atlantic ocean.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:16.79,0:00:19.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A formidable distance, \Neven in today's world.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:24.34,0:00:26.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And yet over that vast distance,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:27.95,0:00:31.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,human beings have pursued\None of history's greatest enterprises:
Dialogue: 0,0:00:33.90,0:00:35.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:37.94,0:00:40.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A tremendously profitable trade route
Dialogue: 0,0:00:41.14,0:00:43.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and so much more.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:44.13,0:00:45.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,For thousands of years,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:45.71,0:00:47.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,exotic goods,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:48.48,0:00:50.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,new technologies,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:52.38,0:00:54.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,conquering armies,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:56.79,0:00:58.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and brilliant ideas
Dialogue: 0,0:01:00.77,0:01:02.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,traveled along the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:10.51,0:01:13.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Silk Road trade helped to build empires
Dialogue: 0,0:01:14.21,0:01:16.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and to break them.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:17.06,0:01:19.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It fanned the fires of revolution.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:21.50,0:01:24.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Drove great explorations,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:25.31,0:01:29.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and forged powerful bonds\Nbetween far away peoples.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:31.68,0:01:35.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Silk Road made human beings realize
Dialogue: 0,0:01:35.86,0:01:38.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that there are other people out there,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:38.95,0:01:43.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it opened the eyes \Nof the east and the west.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:44.66,0:01:50.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is the story of how Silk Road trade \Nmade so much more than money.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:53.54,0:01:57.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's the epic tale of how the Silk Road\Nhelped create a world;
Dialogue: 0,0:01:58.86,0:02:01.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a world that created us.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:16.38,0:02:20.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,2,000 years ago, the Roman Empire\Nseemed unstoppable.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:25.61,0:02:28.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Rome had conquered much of Europe
Dialogue: 0,0:02:28.82,0:02:32.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and was sending its legions beyond\Nthe eastern Mediterranean
Dialogue: 0,0:02:32.98,0:02:35.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to the Middle East
Dialogue: 0,0:02:35.65,0:02:38.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-- gateway to the riches of Asia.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:41.36,0:02:45.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But a journey to the east \Ncould become a road of blood.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:49.02,0:02:53.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In 53 BC. near the Mesopotamian\Ntown of Carrhae,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:54.16,0:02:58.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Parthians — an empire blending\NPersian and Greek cultures —
Dialogue: 0,0:02:58.35,0:03:00.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,confronted a Roman army.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:06.44,0:03:09.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The outcome of the battle\Nseemed beyond doubt.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.39,0:03:18.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some 40,000 Romans\Nfaced only 10,000 Parthians.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:20.52,0:03:24.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And Rome's legions\Nwere Europe's finest foot soldiers.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:26.70,0:03:28.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There was just one problem.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:31.04,0:03:33.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Parthian army didn't fight on foot.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:36.37,0:03:38.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Parthians, they were cavalry.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:38.91,0:03:41.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were horse archers.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:41.12,0:03:43.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Versatile. Rode like the wind.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:46.45,0:03:49.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What the Romans did\Nwas what the Romans always did.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:49.24,0:03:51.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They took a fixed position.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:51.83,0:03:55.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were ordered into a hollow square\Ndefending all sides.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:58.15,0:04:00.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But that was nothing \Nto the Parthian horse archers
Dialogue: 0,0:04:00.83,0:04:03.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because they could just ride\Naround them, and they did.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:03.56,0:04:06.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They galloped around and around \Nand around and around,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:06.55,0:04:08.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,shooting as they went.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:11.94,0:04:16.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thousands and thousands of arrows\Nloosed into those Romans.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:20.10,0:04:24.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What the Romans eventually did \Nwas they were ordered to go into testudo.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:24.69,0:04:28.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's that Roman formation\Nwhere they lock their shields together
Dialogue: 0,0:04:28.70,0:04:32.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and put the next layer\Nof shields to make a roof.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:33.69,0:04:36.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Testudo is Latin for tortoise.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:39.24,0:04:42.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the Parthians \Nhad the answer to this tortoise.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:43.78,0:04:46.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They had a hammer \Nto break open its shell.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:49.83,0:04:52.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Parthian hammer was a cataphract,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:53.66,0:04:56.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a Greek word meaning \N"clothed in full armor".
Dialogue: 0,0:04:58.27,0:05:01.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Horse and rider wore heavy coats of mail.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:04.05,0:05:07.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The cataphract was the ancient world\Nequivalent of a battle tank.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:15.97,0:05:19.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At Carrhae, charging cataphracts\Nbroke open the testudo.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.70,0:05:29.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Exposing the Romans inside\Nto more arrow attacks.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:36.87,0:05:40.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some 30,000 Romans \Nwere killed or captured.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:45.81,0:05:48.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Parthian losses were minor.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:49.71,0:05:53.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was one of Rome's \Nworst military defeats.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:55.42,0:05:58.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it may have been \Nsomething else as well.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:08.95,0:06:10.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A Roman historian wrote
Dialogue: 0,0:06:10.72,0:06:13.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the Parthians dazzled the Romans
Dialogue: 0,0:06:13.13,0:06:16.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with banners made of a beautiful fabric:
Dialogue: 0,0:06:16.70,0:06:18.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,silk.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:25.52,0:06:27.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That may only be a legend.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:29.44,0:06:31.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But around the time of Carrhae,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:31.53,0:06:34.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Romans began coveting Chinese silk,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:35.45,0:06:38.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and China began selling silk to Rome
Dialogue: 0,0:06:38.32,0:06:41.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in exchange for fine\NRoman glassware and gold.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:45.89,0:06:49.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Inspiring the name\Nwe give Eurasian trade today:
Dialogue: 0,0:06:51.45,0:06:53.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:00.20,0:07:03.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But long before Romans and Parthians\Nfought at Carrhae,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:03.87,0:07:08.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,trade between the peoples of Eurasia\Nwere shaping lives,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:08.08,0:07:10.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,making new things possible,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:10.78,0:07:13.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and changing the world.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:18.89,0:07:22.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At Carrhae, the Parthians \Nwon with a style of warfare
Dialogue: 0,0:07:22.63,0:07:25.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that had evolved centuries earlier
Dialogue: 0,0:07:25.11,0:07:27.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and thousands of kilometers away.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:31.37,0:07:34.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,On the steppes of Central Asia,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:36.48,0:07:38.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an ocean of land,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:41.41,0:07:44.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where victory in battle, and life itself,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:44.19,0:07:47.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,depended on moving \Nvery far, very fast.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:53.14,0:07:55.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thousands of years \Nbefore the battle of Carrhae,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:55.94,0:08:00.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a transportation revolution \Ntook place on these vast plains.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:09.73,0:08:14.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's good evidence for the existence\Nof domesticated horses
Dialogue: 0,0:08:14.73,0:08:20.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in what is today Kazakhstan\Nand southern Russia by 3500 BC.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:26.47,0:08:30.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we actually think that probably\Nhorses were domesticated
Dialogue: 0,0:08:30.42,0:08:35.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and began to be ridden \N500 or maybe 1,000 years before that,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:35.27,0:08:37.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,maybe as early as 4500 BC.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:42.07,0:08:44.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The domestication of the horse
Dialogue: 0,0:08:44.24,0:08:46.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was the first step\Ntowards cavalry warfare.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:50.59,0:08:54.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the second step \Nwould be a long time coming.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:56.98,0:09:00.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The first use of horses in warfare \Nwas with chariot warfare,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:01.25,0:09:04.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we have that well established\NTutankhamun's chariot,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:05.06,0:09:08.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which many people have seen\Nin museum exhibits.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:09.62,0:09:12.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we know that people\Nwere using chariots in warfare
Dialogue: 0,0:09:12.100,0:09:17.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,starting in the Near East\Nin about 1600, 1700 BC..
Dialogue: 0,0:09:19.95,0:09:23.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Horses were not used as organized cavalry
Dialogue: 0,0:09:23.40,0:09:26.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until after about 900 BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:26.95,0:09:30.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,almost 1,000 years \Nafter chariot warfare began.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:30.70,0:09:36.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it's always seemed odd to me\Nthat cavalry began after chariotry.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:37.99,0:09:40.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chariotry is very difficult to manage.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:40.57,0:09:43.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have to train horses to work together.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:43.12,0:09:45.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They have to pull this clumsy vehicle
Dialogue: 0,0:09:45.92,0:09:49.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that has two people in it:\Na driver and a warrior.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:50.82,0:09:54.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Training the units to work together,\Nvery difficult thing to do,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:54.86,0:09:57.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,whereas jumping on the back of a horse\Nis an easy thing.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:59.63,0:10:02.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, why did cavalry come after chariotry?
Dialogue: 0,0:10:04.82,0:10:08.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I think the real reason \Nthat cavalry waited
Dialogue: 0,0:10:08.58,0:10:12.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that you needed to have\Nreally three innovations.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:21.34,0:10:26.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The earliest evidence for the recurved bow\Nis in Shang Dynasty, China,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:26.10,0:10:29.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,probably dated between 1300 and 1100 BC.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:31.58,0:10:34.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Shang emperors communicated \Nwith their ancestors
Dialogue: 0,0:10:34.62,0:10:38.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by heating animal bones or turtle shells\Nuntil they cracked
Dialogue: 0,0:10:38.76,0:10:42.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then interpreting\Nthe patterns made by the cracks.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:42.90,0:10:45.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of these so-called oracle bones
Dialogue: 0,0:10:45.33,0:10:48.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is carved with the Chinese \Ncharacter for bow
Dialogue: 0,0:10:48.66,0:10:52.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— the earliest known image\Nof a recurved bow.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:53.32,0:10:55.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in the tomb of Lady Fuhao
Dialogue: 0,0:10:55.54,0:10:58.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— an imperial consort \Nand renowned military commander —
Dialogue: 0,0:10:58.100,0:11:01.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,archaeologists found more evidence.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:03.84,0:11:08.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a thumb cover \Nfor drawing bow string
Dialogue: 0,0:11:08.67,0:11:12.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and there's another piece that went\Nin the middle of a recurved bow,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:12.14,0:11:13.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a hand grip.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:13.34,0:11:15.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The bows themselves are not preserved,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:15.27,0:11:19.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so, it's a difficult thing to identify\Nthe origins of the recurved bow.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:21.38,0:11:23.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The different components of it
Dialogue: 0,0:11:23.41,0:11:26.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,probably came from different places\Ngeographically.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:28.18,0:11:31.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Just how far the recurved bow\Ntraveled across Eurasia
Dialogue: 0,0:11:31.22,0:11:36.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was revealed in 2005 at Yanghai,\Nin China's Xinjiang region.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:38.51,0:11:41.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Wooden bows rarely survive \Nburial in the ground,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:41.88,0:11:45.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but Xinjiang's cold, dry climate\Npreserved one
Dialogue: 0,0:11:45.56,0:11:48.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in a 3,000-year-old tomb.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:49.50,0:11:51.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Other grave goods \Nand the human remains
Dialogue: 0,0:11:51.83,0:11:53.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,found in the Yanghai tombs
Dialogue: 0,0:11:53.97,0:11:57.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,confirmed that the bow was made\Nby the Scythians,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:57.61,0:12:02.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a highly sophisticated culture\Nthat originated in southern Russia
Dialogue: 0,0:12:02.38,0:12:04.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and migrated on horseback
Dialogue: 0,0:12:04.16,0:12:07.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,across the length and breadth of Eurasia.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:10.62,0:12:13.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The true birthplace \Nof the recurved composite bow
Dialogue: 0,0:12:13.78,0:12:16.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,remains an archaeological mystery.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:18.41,0:12:21.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But there is no doubt \Nthat 3,000 years ago
Dialogue: 0,0:12:21.50,0:12:25.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,anyone who fought on horseback\Nwould have found it revolutionary.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:26.40,0:12:30.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A bow is as strong as it is long.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:30.24,0:12:33.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It derives its strength from its length.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:34.41,0:12:36.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the recurved bow \Npacks the same length
Dialogue: 0,0:12:36.91,0:12:40.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,into this very short bow
Dialogue: 0,0:12:40.44,0:12:44.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that can be swung over the horse's rear \Nand over the horse's neck.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:46.10,0:12:49.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it was much, much easier \Nto use on horseback.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:50.28,0:12:54.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the recurved bows are\Ntechnologically quite difficult to make.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:55.27,0:12:59.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It took a long time to develop\Nthe craft of bow making to that point.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:02.53,0:13:07.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The recurve all these sinewy bends\N— reflex and deflex —
Dialogue: 0,0:13:07.10,0:13:09.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that gives it in-built spring.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:09.63,0:13:12.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But that can only be created\Nwith composite materials.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:12.62,0:13:16.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What we mean by that is\Nit's made of a number of materials.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:16.04,0:13:18.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The heart of it is wood, usually beech.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:18.34,0:13:22.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then you have horn,\Nhorn from a water buffalo,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:22.19,0:13:26.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then sinew, the tendons of an animal.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:26.50,0:13:29.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That, when you bash it,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:29.36,0:13:32.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can tease apart\Nand get these very fine fibers,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:32.65,0:13:36.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,fibers with tremendous tensile strength.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:36.99,0:13:39.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That has elasticity and spring,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:39.78,0:13:42.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it stops the bow bursting apart.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:42.10,0:13:46.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These are all materials that enhance\Nthe power, the spring of the bow.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:48.48,0:13:52.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But only if bow makers\Ncould solve a very big problem.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:54.87,0:13:57.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How to keep such a powerful bow
Dialogue: 0,0:13:57.37,0:13:59.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made from so many different materials
Dialogue: 0,0:13:59.64,0:14:02.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from breaking up when its own power\Nwas pulling it apart?
Dialogue: 0,0:14:07.50,0:14:10.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Somewhere in Eurasia, sometime long ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:10.85,0:14:14.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some unknown genius discovered the answer.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:15.81,0:14:20.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is the swim bladder of a sturgeon\N— a fish from the Black Sea.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:20.08,0:14:24.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if you start to break these up \Nthen put it in hot water,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:24.45,0:14:27.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you get this wonderful, viscous glue.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:27.45,0:14:32.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This simple idea of making a glue\Nout of a swim bladder of a fish
Dialogue: 0,0:14:32.71,0:14:37.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was a technological breakthrough\Nof immense consequences.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:37.89,0:14:41.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It is what enabled\Nthe composite bow to exist.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:42.05,0:14:46.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in turn the composite bow\Nwas a military revolution
Dialogue: 0,0:14:46.46,0:14:49.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of far-reaching consequences.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:51.69,0:14:56.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The composite recurved bow\Ngave birth to a new kind of warrior
Dialogue: 0,0:14:57.14,0:14:59.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the horse archer.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:59.22,0:15:01.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The horse archer was able\Nto shoot from the saddle
Dialogue: 0,0:15:01.87,0:15:05.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in part because of the new technology\Nof the composite bow.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:06.17,0:15:08.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were short, compact bows,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:08.91,0:15:11.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that meant that you \Ncan shoot them from horseback.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:12.02,0:15:14.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You see I can cross\Nto the other side of the horse,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:14.45,0:15:15.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I can turn and shoot behind.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:15.89,0:15:18.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's much more suitable\Nfor shooting on horseback.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:21.78,0:15:24.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Everyone who fought with Eurasian nomads,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:24.59,0:15:26.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,whether as enemy or friend,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:26.74,0:15:29.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,wanted a recurved composite bow.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:29.66,0:15:31.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the early first millennium BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:31.90,0:15:35.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it was in use from east Asia\Nto eastern Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:40.00,0:15:44.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A recurved bow gave a horse archer\Nunprecedented killing power.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:48.48,0:15:50.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it didn't make him a cavalryman.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:53.18,0:15:57.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Before horse archers could fight\Nas an effective military force,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:58.04,0:16:01.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they needed a large supply\Nof identical arrows.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:04.06,0:16:06.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that didn't exist.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:09.63,0:16:12.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Arrowheads were a variety \Nof different sizes and weights.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:12.94,0:16:14.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some were made of bone.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:14.79,0:16:16.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some were made out of flint.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:16.85,0:16:18.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some were made out of bronze.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:18.62,0:16:20.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,All of them would be individually made
Dialogue: 0,0:16:20.80,0:16:24.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you had to adjust your shot\Nfor the weight of different arrows.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:24.66,0:16:27.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Also a unit of soldiers \Nwho were firing at the same time
Dialogue: 0,0:16:27.82,0:16:30.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would be firing arrows\Nof slightly different weights
Dialogue: 0,0:16:31.03,0:16:33.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they might go different distances.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:34.40,0:16:37.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of the features of a stone arrowhead\Nis its flattened rear
Dialogue: 0,0:16:38.44,0:16:40.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But how did it connect \Nwith the arrowshaft?
Dialogue: 0,0:16:40.68,0:16:44.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It can only be tied to the shaft\Nby rope or ox tendons.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:44.13,0:16:45.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But what about the disadvantages?
Dialogue: 0,0:16:45.71,0:16:49.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,First, the released arrows \Ntend to change direction easily.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:49.77,0:16:52.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Second, they are likely to fall off,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:57.71,0:16:59.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of the technological innovations
Dialogue: 0,0:16:59.93,0:17:03.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was the invention\Nof the socketed arrowhead.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:04.68,0:17:07.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were made of bronze, usually,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:07.88,0:17:11.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they were made in a mould \Nand cast in a mould,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:12.14,0:17:17.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so that an infinite number \Nof socketed arrowheads of the same weight
Dialogue: 0,0:17:17.34,0:17:19.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could be made from the same mould.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:23.14,0:17:27.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Making socketed projectile points \Nwas actually a big deal.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:30.63,0:17:36.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have to have a mould with a core\Nwhere the socket is going to be
Dialogue: 0,0:17:36.44,0:17:39.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that you can pour molten metal around
Dialogue: 0,0:17:39.38,0:17:42.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so that it's the same thickness \Nall the way around.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:48.38,0:17:51.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Making arrowheads\Nof the same size and weight
Dialogue: 0,0:17:51.46,0:17:55.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was another Central Asian\Ntechnological revolution.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:59.08,0:18:02.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,For the first time, mounted warriors\Ncould unleash
Dialogue: 0,0:18:02.25,0:18:05.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,coordinated arrow attacks \Non their enemies.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:07.68,0:18:10.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,With arrowheads of the same weight,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:10.40,0:18:13.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,every time you drew the bow to shoot
Dialogue: 0,0:18:13.84,0:18:16.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you knew that you were firing an arrow
Dialogue: 0,0:18:16.24,0:18:19.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that was exactly the same weight\Nas the last arrow that you fired,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:19.57,0:18:23.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so you could determine\Nthe range and the distance well.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:24.12,0:18:28.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And also all of the archers \Nthat were firing
Dialogue: 0,0:18:28.69,0:18:32.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were firing arrowheads\Nat the same weight at the same time.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:32.97,0:18:36.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the distance for all of them \Nwould be the same.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:36.74,0:18:39.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,With a socketed arrowhead
Dialogue: 0,0:18:39.71,0:18:44.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can directly insert \Nthe head into the shaft.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:44.62,0:18:46.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It look like this.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:47.45,0:18:50.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So what are the advantages\Nof this type of arrowhead?
Dialogue: 0,0:18:50.45,0:18:52.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Its improvements greatly enhanced
Dialogue: 0,0:18:52.31,0:18:54.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the lethality and efficiency\Nof ancient arrows.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:54.72,0:18:58.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Even in the chaos of war, the shooter \Ncould aim t the target easily.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:58.46,0:19:01.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He wouldn't loose the direction\Nby aiming t the target quickly.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:02.38,0:19:06.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This ivention is a giant leap \Nin the development of human history.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:07.77,0:19:11.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Archaeologists believe that sometime\Nin the second millennium BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:12.37,0:19:15.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,socketed bronze arrowheads\Nbegan spreading east
Dialogue: 0,0:19:15.82,0:19:19.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while the composite \Nrecurved bow spread west.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:20.65,0:19:23.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Sometime around 900 BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:23.00,0:19:25.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,socketed arrowheads and recurved bows
Dialogue: 0,0:19:25.59,0:19:28.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,met in the Tarim Basin area \Nof Central Asia,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:31.07,0:19:35.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,brought together by traders,\Nwarriors, and migrating nomads.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:38.80,0:19:43.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,After about 700 BC, you begin to see\Nthousands and thousands of arrowheads
Dialogue: 0,0:19:43.81,0:19:47.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and dozens of arrowheads\Nin a single quiver in a grave.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:47.59,0:19:50.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's like they're being mass produced.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:52.26,0:19:56.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Bronze socketed arrowheads\Nturned central Asia into an arsenal,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:56.64,0:19:59.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but cavalries still couldn't exist
Dialogue: 0,0:20:00.88,0:20:03.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until warriors could become soldiers.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:08.06,0:20:10.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was really the age of heroic warfare
Dialogue: 0,0:20:10.62,0:20:14.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— individuals going out \Nand doing great deeds by themselves
Dialogue: 0,0:20:14.53,0:20:16.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and attracting glory for their own name.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:17.02,0:20:19.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this is the kind of warfare\Nthat's described
Dialogue: 0,0:20:20.03,0:20:23.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the "Iliad", in the "Odyssey," \Nor in the "Rigveda,"
Dialogue: 0,0:20:23.93,0:20:27.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a religious text that's at the deep roots\Nof modern Hinduism.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:29.20,0:20:32.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What had to change\Nwas a psychological change
Dialogue: 0,0:20:32.50,0:20:35.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the nature of the warrior.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:35.76,0:20:39.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You had to change\Nfrom individuals to units
Dialogue: 0,0:20:39.26,0:20:42.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,working under the command\Nof a commanding general,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:43.15,0:20:46.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who would attack and retreat\Nupon command.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:48.30,0:20:52.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The psychological change \Nfrom the heroic warrior to the soldier,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:53.74,0:20:57.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,probably is a feature of urban warfare.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:57.89,0:21:00.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The armies that were associated
Dialogue: 0,0:21:00.38,0:21:04.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with the great cities \Nof Mesopotamia and Iran.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:06.52,0:21:11.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That psychology had to spread \Nnorthward up into the steppes
Dialogue: 0,0:21:12.17,0:21:16.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and be accepted by warriors\Nin the steppes,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:16.65,0:21:19.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the same area \Nwhere the recurved bows
Dialogue: 0,0:21:19.40,0:21:22.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the socketed arrowheads were crossing.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:24.63,0:21:27.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,While recurved bows were spreading west
Dialogue: 0,0:21:27.24,0:21:29.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and socketed arrowheads\Nwere spreading east,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:29.68,0:21:32.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the concept of military discipline\Nwas spreading north.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:36.46,0:21:38.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Sometime around 900 BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:39.08,0:21:42.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all three combined\Nin the heart of central Asia.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:44.86,0:21:47.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When those three things came together,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:47.17,0:21:51.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,cavalry became a really deadly form\Nof military force.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:55.18,0:21:59.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A force that would severely test\Nthe ancient world's most powerful armies.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:02.32,0:22:03.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,2,000 years ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:03.85,0:22:07.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as the Romans pushed east \Nto expand their empire,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:08.34,0:22:10.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,China was pushing west.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:13.22,0:22:15.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And like the Romans,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:15.09,0:22:18.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Chinese encountered\Na formidable enemy on horseback.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:23.01,0:22:26.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Xiongnu were nomads\Nfrom the Central Asian steppes.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:28.04,0:22:30.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Armed with recurved bows\Nand socketed arrows,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:30.96,0:22:34.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they fought under commanders \Nas a disciplined military force.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:38.25,0:22:41.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They raided Chinese villages
Dialogue: 0,0:22:41.48,0:22:44.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and plundered the growing trade\Nbetween East and West,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:46.30,0:22:48.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and no one could stop them.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:49.74,0:22:55.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Xiongnu was the migraine\Nof the ancient world for the Chinese.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:56.82,0:23:01.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They simply just kept coming\Nand they would not stop.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:04.73,0:23:12.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Xiongnu wanted the finest\Nmaterial goods produced by the Chinese.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:16.12,0:23:18.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That is why they raided.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:23.31,0:23:27.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Imagine you're a villager in China\Nand these men come from nowhere.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:27.06,0:23:29.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They come from over the hill \Nwithout warning,
Dialogue: 0,0:23:29.29,0:23:30.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,tearing into your village.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:30.94,0:23:33.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They shoot the headman, \Nthey shoot your husband.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:33.33,0:23:34.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They chase the women out.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:34.86,0:23:38.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There is no hiding place\Nand there's a flurry of dust and arrows.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:38.44,0:23:41.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They're in and they're out \Nand they take the stuff and they go.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:44.79,0:23:47.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,China sent its military might\Nagainst the Xiongnu.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:49.82,0:23:51.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The famed Terracotta Warriors
Dialogue: 0,0:23:51.72,0:23:54.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,reveal the size and power\Nof Chinese armies.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:56.54,0:23:59.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the Chinese fought on foot\Nand from chariots.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:02.72,0:24:05.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Not effective against hit-and-run cavalry.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:07.03,0:24:12.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A Chinese courtier wrote that the Xiongnu\Nmoved like a flock of birds over the land,
Dialogue: 0,0:24:13.23,0:24:15.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,impossible to control.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:16.42,0:24:20.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Once mounted warfare really\Nbecame deadly and effective,
Dialogue: 0,0:24:20.26,0:24:22.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it became a real problem.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:22.86,0:24:27.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you're a farmer, the nomads know\Nwhere you're going to be all the time.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:27.73,0:24:31.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Your house is in the same place\N12 months of the year,
Dialogue: 0,0:24:31.44,0:24:35.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and when your crops become ripe,\Nyou have to harvest,
Dialogue: 0,0:24:35.55,0:24:39.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the nomads know when that season is.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:40.19,0:24:43.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Whereas when you're trying\Nto strike them back,
Dialogue: 0,0:24:43.17,0:24:45.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's impossible to know\Nwhere they're going to be
Dialogue: 0,0:24:45.80,0:24:47.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or when they're going to be there.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:47.87,0:24:50.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have to search to find them.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:53.19,0:24:58.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,To beat the Xiongnu, the Chinese \Nneeded soldiers who could fight like them.
Dialogue: 0,0:25:01.09,0:25:03.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They needed cavalry.
Dialogue: 0,0:25:06.20,0:25:09.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are manuals of warfare\Nthat were written
Dialogue: 0,0:25:09.37,0:25:12.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to instruct Chinese warriors
Dialogue: 0,0:25:12.64,0:25:16.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on how to counter the tactics\Nand the methods of the Xiongnu.
Dialogue: 0,0:25:17.82,0:25:20.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Those manuals introduced \Nthe idea of cavalry
Dialogue: 0,0:25:20.57,0:25:22.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to the Chinese military.
Dialogue: 0,0:25:23.15,0:25:26.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Chinese military\Nhad not really used cavalry
Dialogue: 0,0:25:26.31,0:25:28.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,before about probably 350 BC.
Dialogue: 0,0:25:30.63,0:25:34.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese military, at first \Nwith some resistance
Dialogue: 0,0:25:34.03,0:25:36.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from the old aristocratic families, said:
Dialogue: 0,0:25:36.87,0:25:39.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Well, my father fought on a chariot,
Dialogue: 0,0:25:39.03,0:25:40.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"and his father fought on a chariot,
Dialogue: 0,0:25:40.89,0:25:44.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"and I'm gonna fight on a chariot\Nin my long robes like my ancestors."
Dialogue: 0,0:25:46.41,0:25:49.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it wasn't long before Chinese warriors
Dialogue: 0,0:25:49.05,0:25:51.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,traded their traditional\Nlong, flowing robes
Dialogue: 0,0:25:52.46,0:25:56.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for shorter tunics that didn't get\Nin the way of fighting on horseback.
Dialogue: 0,0:25:59.16,0:26:05.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Eventually, the practicalities\Nforced them to get rid of their robes,
Dialogue: 0,0:26:05.16,0:26:07.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to put on riding trousers,
Dialogue: 0,0:26:08.01,0:26:10.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to learn to shoot the bow on horseback,
Dialogue: 0,0:26:10.98,0:26:14.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they, too, became \Na mighty horse archer force.
Dialogue: 0,0:26:19.66,0:26:23.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese cavalry became experts\Nat shooting the recurved composite bow,
Dialogue: 0,0:26:25.62,0:26:30.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and a lethal Chinese weapon, the crossbow.
Dialogue: 0,0:26:34.13,0:26:36.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,While its cavalry trained,
Dialogue: 0,0:26:36.47,0:26:41.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,China agreed to Xiongnu demands\Nfor payments of money and silk
Dialogue: 0,0:26:42.34,0:26:45.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until the year 133 BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:26:46.10,0:26:49.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when Emperor Han Wudi refused to pay.
Dialogue: 0,0:26:53.22,0:26:55.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And sent his army to attack the Xiongnu.
Dialogue: 0,0:27:30.95,0:27:33.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese cavalry defeated the nomads.
Dialogue: 0,0:27:37.30,0:27:40.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And China seized\Nnew territories in the steppes,
Dialogue: 0,0:27:42.93,0:27:46.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,pacifying trade routes \Nand opening new horizons.
Dialogue: 0,0:27:52.03,0:27:55.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,On one hand, \Nwe have this perpetual conflict
Dialogue: 0,0:27:55.12,0:27:59.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— in Chinese culture would be\Nthe Xiongn and the Han Chinese
Dialogue: 0,0:28:00.38,0:28:03.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that created incessant warfare.
Dialogue: 0,0:28:05.39,0:28:08.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,On the other hand, it is this conflict
Dialogue: 0,0:28:08.57,0:28:11.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that demolished physical boundaries.
Dialogue: 0,0:28:12.100,0:28:17.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Even territory boundaries \Nwere constantly being pushed farther,
Dialogue: 0,0:28:17.15,0:28:20.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,pushed back between the two forces.
Dialogue: 0,0:28:20.55,0:28:26.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This was a stimulus for exchanges,
Dialogue: 0,0:28:26.75,0:28:28.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for political changes,
Dialogue: 0,0:28:28.88,0:28:32.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for new ideas, for artistic traditions.
Dialogue: 0,0:28:36.06,0:28:38.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was also a new era for the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,0:28:40.49,0:28:43.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A fortune in Roman gold \Ntraveled east
Dialogue: 0,0:28:43.68,0:28:46.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in exchange for Chinese silks.
Dialogue: 0,0:28:51.40,0:28:53.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the Central Asian kingdom of Kushan
Dialogue: 0,0:28:54.00,0:28:57.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made its own fortune \Nselling another luxury to China:
Dialogue: 0,0:28:59.56,0:29:00.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,jade.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:03.92,0:29:06.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Silk Road caravans passed \Nthrough this border station
Dialogue: 0,0:29:06.61,0:29:08.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on China's western frontier.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:10.84,0:29:13.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So many of them carried Kushan jade
Dialogue: 0,0:29:13.43,0:29:16.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that this station became known \Nas the Jade Gate.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:21.86,0:29:25.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese aristocrats\Ncoveted jade for its beauty
Dialogue: 0,0:29:25.49,0:29:27.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and something more.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:30.03,0:29:33.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They believed that jade \Nwould keep them alive forever.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:36.79,0:29:39.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The ruling elite commissioned \Njade burial suits
Dialogue: 0,0:29:39.56,0:29:42.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to preserve their bodies in the grave.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:45.62,0:29:48.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They believed that, upon death,
Dialogue: 0,0:29:48.76,0:29:51.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all the orifices should be plugged in
Dialogue: 0,0:29:51.84,0:29:56.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to preserve the spirit inside the person.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:56.97,0:30:00.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this notion of jade
Dialogue: 0,0:30:00.35,0:30:05.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as a material with protective power\Nin the afterlife,
Dialogue: 0,0:30:05.37,0:30:08.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is further enhanced by the fact
Dialogue: 0,0:30:08.35,0:30:11.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they built an armor
Dialogue: 0,0:30:11.06,0:30:16.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made of thousands\Nof pieces of jade.
Dialogue: 0,0:30:17.92,0:30:20.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And of course, if you're the emperor,
Dialogue: 0,0:30:20.12,0:30:25.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,your jade armor would be made\Nfrom the finest jade
Dialogue: 0,0:30:26.100,0:30:29.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from the western regions.
Dialogue: 0,0:30:30.45,0:30:33.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,During the Roman empire,\NSilk Road trade flourished
Dialogue: 0,0:30:33.57,0:30:36.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as Chinese, Persian, and Kushan armies
Dialogue: 0,0:30:36.53,0:30:39.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,kept the trade routes open across Eurasia.
Dialogue: 0,0:30:46.74,0:30:48.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,China had leveled the battlefield
Dialogue: 0,0:30:48.63,0:30:51.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with nomad raiders from the steppes.
Dialogue: 0,0:30:57.49,0:30:59.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But Central Asian horse archers
Dialogue: 0,0:30:59.76,0:31:02.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were about to carve\Ntheir names on History.
Dialogue: 0,0:31:04.45,0:31:08.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the 4th century CE., Europe was invaded\Nby a Central Asian people
Dialogue: 0,0:31:09.04,0:31:12.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,whose name still evokes barbaric cruelty.
Dialogue: 0,0:31:18.66,0:31:22.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Huns, who fought their way West,\Nall the way to Rome.
Dialogue: 0,0:31:32.71,0:31:35.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,European peoples\Nlike the Goths and Visigoths
Dialogue: 0,0:31:35.27,0:31:37.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— the so-called barbarians —
Dialogue: 0,0:31:37.71,0:31:39.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,fled before their onslaught,
Dialogue: 0,0:31:39.44,0:31:41.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and sought refuge in Roman territory.
Dialogue: 0,0:31:43.68,0:31:46.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When the Huns withdrew\Nfrom the Roman world,
Dialogue: 0,0:31:46.73,0:31:49.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,those barbarian refugees stayed.
Dialogue: 0,0:31:55.45,0:31:58.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the rest is History.
Dialogue: 0,0:32:02.39,0:32:05.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The western Roman empire \Nwas plunged into chaos
Dialogue: 0,0:32:07.77,0:32:10.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as barbarian tribes, \Ndissatisfied with their lot,
Dialogue: 0,0:32:10.68,0:32:13.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,rebelled against Roman authority,
Dialogue: 0,0:32:14.14,0:32:17.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and weak Roman emperors \Nfailed to crush them.
Dialogue: 0,0:32:21.74,0:32:26.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As Rome declined, migrating \Nhorse archers, called the Avars,
Dialogue: 0,0:32:26.21,0:32:30.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,carved their own country \Nout of eastern Europe,
Dialogue: 0,0:32:30.44,0:32:33.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,bringing with them \Nanother Asian military innovation:
Dialogue: 0,0:32:36.74,0:32:38.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the stirrup.
Dialogue: 0,0:32:41.76,0:32:44.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This Chinese statue \Nfrom the fourth century CE,
Dialogue: 0,0:32:44.78,0:32:48.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is the earliest known\Ndepiction of stirrups.
Dialogue: 0,0:32:52.57,0:32:54.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some 300 years later,
Dialogue: 0,0:32:54.79,0:32:57.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an Avar horseman\Nwas riding with these stirrups
Dialogue: 0,0:32:57.26,0:32:59.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,across Hungary.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:05.43,0:33:07.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the eighth century CE,
Dialogue: 0,0:33:07.29,0:33:11.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the stirrup had spread\Nfrom one end of Eurasia to the other
Dialogue: 0,0:33:11.83,0:33:14.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and mounted warfare\Nwas entering a new era.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:18.08,0:33:19.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The importance of the stirrup
Dialogue: 0,0:33:19.99,0:33:24.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,relates to what kinds of weapons\Ncan you use from horseback,
Dialogue: 0,0:33:24.20,0:33:28.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it made it possible to use \Ncertain kinds of weapons from horseback
Dialogue: 0,0:33:28.68,0:33:31.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that you couldn't use without stirrups.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:31.41,0:33:33.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Those weapons are the long sabre.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:34.23,0:33:37.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have to lean over and absorb shock,
Dialogue: 0,0:33:38.06,0:33:40.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if you're going to use\Na long sabre in battle.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:40.70,0:33:44.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the stirrups allow the rider \Nto absorb the shock of contact
Dialogue: 0,0:33:44.100,0:33:47.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with a stationary target.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:47.79,0:33:50.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The other big weapon \Nthat was possible with stirrups
Dialogue: 0,0:33:50.42,0:33:54.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was a seated lance held under the arm.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:54.35,0:33:58.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You could stab somebody with the lance\Nand then remove it,
Dialogue: 0,0:33:58.96,0:34:01.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,riding past them without stirrups.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:02.52,0:34:07.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But if you seated it under your arm\Nand used the lance as a shock weapon,
Dialogue: 0,0:34:07.81,0:34:10.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it would knock you\Noff the back of the horse
Dialogue: 0,0:34:10.47,0:34:12.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if you didn't have stirrups.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:12.44,0:34:16.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So stirrups made it possible to use\Nlong swords and lances
Dialogue: 0,0:34:16.81,0:34:19.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as shock weapons \Nagainst stationary targets
Dialogue: 0,0:34:19.61,0:34:21.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and keep your seat.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:21.94,0:34:27.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And of course that made it possible\Nto have really heavy mounted warriors.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:28.09,0:34:31.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, the rider becomes \Na unit with the horse.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:32.24,0:34:35.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He's so anchored with his stirrups,\Nanchored with this,
Dialogue: 0,0:34:35.30,0:34:37.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then with his long lance
Dialogue: 0,0:34:37.58,0:34:41.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,he becomes a single projectile unit.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:43.32,0:34:48.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Man, horse, saddle, lance, \Nall locked together for the impact charge.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:52.76,0:34:55.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This was the age of the medieval knight.
Dialogue: 0,0:35:01.11,0:35:02.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A medieval knight's power
Dialogue: 0,0:35:02.97,0:35:06.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,came from combining the Asian stirrup\Nand the ancient shock tactics
Dialogue: 0,0:35:06.79,0:35:10.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the Persian cataphract\Nwith a European invention:
Dialogue: 0,0:35:11.43,0:35:13.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,articulated plate armor.
Dialogue: 0,0:35:15.93,0:35:19.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Strong enough to protect the wearer \Nfrom sword and lance thrusts
Dialogue: 0,0:35:20.76,0:35:24.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while light enough to allow him \Nto move freely on horseback
Dialogue: 0,0:35:24.99,0:35:26.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and on foot.
Dialogue: 0,0:35:29.52,0:35:33.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Heavy cavalry had never been\Na more potent weapon of war.
Dialogue: 0,0:35:35.72,0:35:38.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Medieval mounted warfare \Ncould be warfare
Dialogue: 0,0:35:38.98,0:35:42.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that generated\Na lot of force on the rider,
Dialogue: 0,0:35:43.09,0:35:45.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a high impact warfare.
Dialogue: 0,0:35:46.78,0:35:49.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In that case, the mounted warrior\Nis being used
Dialogue: 0,0:35:49.58,0:35:53.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,really as a shock weapon\Nto strike the enemy.
Dialogue: 0,0:36:00.26,0:36:03.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But even Europe's \Nformidable mounted knights
Dialogue: 0,0:36:03.24,0:36:06.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would be outfought\Nby Central Asian cavalry
Dialogue: 0,0:36:08.86,0:36:12.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that burst out of the steppes \Nand changed the world.
Dialogue: 0,0:36:16.82,0:36:21.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The largest conquest empire\Nthat the Earth has ever seen
Dialogue: 0,0:36:23.65,0:36:27.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was created by pastoral nomads\Nfrom Central Asia.
Dialogue: 0,0:36:35.96,0:36:37.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the 13th century,
Dialogue: 0,0:36:37.93,0:36:40.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Mongols conquered \Nas far West as Poland
Dialogue: 0,0:36:40.66,0:36:43.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and as far East as the Sea of Japan.
Dialogue: 0,0:36:47.98,0:36:52.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Mongol armies combined the devastating\Nshock tactics of horse archers
Dialogue: 0,0:36:52.26,0:36:55.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with a highly sophisticated\Nmilitary organization.
Dialogue: 0,0:36:57.80,0:37:02.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They could gather quickly\Nand march to distant battlefields.
Dialogue: 0,0:37:04.69,0:37:08.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Then the cavalry could reach\Nthe enemy's battlefield
Dialogue: 0,0:37:08.16,0:37:11.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,before they set up defenses
Dialogue: 0,0:37:11.16,0:37:16.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which could deter their enemy\Npsychologically and strategically.
Dialogue: 0,0:37:16.86,0:37:21.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It is said that the cavalry came suddenly
Dialogue: 0,0:37:21.54,0:37:25.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like something falling fro the sky.
Dialogue: 0,0:37:25.52,0:37:29.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and disappeared quickly
Dialogue: 0,0:37:29.52,0:37:32.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,leaving no trace at all.
Dialogue: 0,0:37:32.72,0:37:35.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Western, especially European historians,
Dialogue: 0,0:37:35.66,0:37:41.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,wrote that the Mongols appeared \Nfar away like several spots
Dialogue: 0,0:37:41.51,0:37:46.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but would suddenly gather\Nbefore you, like dark clouds.
Dialogue: 0,0:37:46.31,0:37:50.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Unexpected attack was the core
Dialogue: 0,0:37:56.47,0:38:00.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Mongols have gone down\Nin History as bloodthirsty killers,
Dialogue: 0,0:38:00.90,0:38:04.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they were also sophisticated,\Nopen-minded,
Dialogue: 0,0:38:04.36,0:38:06.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,often generous conquerors.
Dialogue: 0,0:38:08.67,0:38:11.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They pacified the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,0:38:16.78,0:38:18.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Trade between West and East
Dialogue: 0,0:38:18.78,0:38:21.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,flourished under \Nthis Mongol-enforced peace,
Dialogue: 0,0:38:21.58,0:38:23.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Pax Mongolica.
Dialogue: 0,0:38:26.38,0:38:29.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Before the age of Pax Mongolica,
Dialogue: 0,0:38:29.13,0:38:33.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,banditry was a very serious\Nproblem for traders,
Dialogue: 0,0:38:33.58,0:38:36.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for caravans, along the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,0:38:37.09,0:38:40.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The reputation of Genghis Khan\Nand his descendants
Dialogue: 0,0:38:41.43,0:38:45.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,created peace and safe passage\Nalong the Silk Road
Dialogue: 0,0:38:45.87,0:38:53.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because bandits were so afraid\Nof the Mongol soldiers.
Dialogue: 0,0:38:54.24,0:38:56.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Pax Mongolica,
Dialogue: 0,0:38:57.22,0:39:05.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the control of trade and exchange
Dialogue: 0,0:39:05.50,0:39:08.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that was made possible under the Mongols
Dialogue: 0,0:39:08.45,0:39:12.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,connected China with Europe\Nand with the Near East
Dialogue: 0,0:39:12.40,0:39:16.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in a really close way \Nfor the first time in world History
Dialogue: 0,0:39:16.59,0:39:19.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that had a profound effect
Dialogue: 0,0:39:19.49,0:39:22.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on the development\Nof European civilization.
Dialogue: 0,0:39:24.36,0:39:26.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Protected by the Pax Mongolica,
Dialogue: 0,0:39:26.48,0:39:30.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and anxious for good relations \Nwith the Mongol empire,
Dialogue: 0,0:39:30.24,0:39:34.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Europeans began traveling East \Nas never before.
Dialogue: 0,0:39:36.24,0:39:38.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Merchants, missionaries, and diplomats
Dialogue: 0,0:39:38.82,0:39:41.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,flowed East along the trade routes,
Dialogue: 0,0:39:43.39,0:39:46.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,bringing back popular Asian goods\Nlike cloth and spices
Dialogue: 0,0:39:48.56,0:39:51.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and tales of the wealth \Nand wonders of the East,
Dialogue: 0,0:39:52.14,0:39:56.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some true, some fabulous, \Nbut all fascinating.
Dialogue: 0,0:39:57.91,0:39:59.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,From Europe to China,
Dialogue: 0,0:39:59.58,0:40:03.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Silk Road trade spread \Nnew knowledge of far-away lands.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:04.57,0:40:09.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Silk Road made human beings realize
Dialogue: 0,0:40:09.23,0:40:12.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that there are other people out there,
Dialogue: 0,0:40:12.12,0:40:15.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it opened the eyes \Nof the East and the West.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:19.67,0:40:23.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Italian cities of Venice and Genoa\Nreaped huge rewards.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:27.05,0:40:29.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Their merchants traveled safely\Nthroughout Eurasia
Dialogue: 0,0:40:31.68,0:40:34.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and founded trading posts on the Black Sea
Dialogue: 0,0:40:34.14,0:40:37.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to receive and pass on Silk Road goods.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:38.80,0:40:42.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Their Silk Road profits funded\Nmagnificent art and architecture.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:45.40,0:40:49.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But their competition frequently\Nplunged them into war with one another.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:51.64,0:40:56.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In one of these wars, Genoa captured\Na prosperous Venetian merchant
Dialogue: 0,0:40:56.19,0:40:58.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,named Marco Polo.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:59.09,0:41:02.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Imprisoned by the Genoese, \NPolo dictated the story
Dialogue: 0,0:41:02.82,0:41:06.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of his Silk Road journey to China\Nto a fellow prisoner.
Dialogue: 0,0:41:09.17,0:41:13.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Today, experts debate whether\NMarco Polo really visited China
Dialogue: 0,0:41:14.31,0:41:16.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or was simply retelling stories
Dialogue: 0,0:41:16.92,0:41:19.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,he heard from fellow Silk Road travelers.
Dialogue: 0,0:41:23.67,0:41:26.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But there's no debate \Nthat "The Travels of Marco Polo"
Dialogue: 0,0:41:27.05,0:41:31.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was one of the most influential books\Nin all of human History.
Dialogue: 0,0:41:32.04,0:41:34.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It tantalized Europe with tales
Dialogue: 0,0:41:34.24,0:41:37.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of China's immense wealth \Nand advanced civilization.
Dialogue: 0,0:41:45.19,0:41:49.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And years before Marco Polo was telling\Nthose tales in a Genoese prison,
Dialogue: 0,0:41:52.72,0:41:57.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a Chinese invention was making\Nits way across Eurasia to the West.
Dialogue: 0,0:42:02.57,0:42:05.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Something created centuries earlier
Dialogue: 0,0:42:05.10,0:42:08.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when an experiment ended very badly.
Dialogue: 0,0:42:19.46,0:42:23.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Ancient Chinese alchemists\Nprepared potions of lead or mercury
Dialogue: 0,0:42:23.76,0:42:26.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for their aristocratic patrons
Dialogue: 0,0:42:26.06,0:42:29.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who believed that drinking these metals\Nwould help them live forever.
Dialogue: 0,0:42:32.75,0:42:36.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Instead, those concoctions killed them \Nor made them insane.
Dialogue: 0,0:42:38.80,0:42:41.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Another deadly combination was sulfur
Dialogue: 0,0:42:41.68,0:42:45.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,heated with an organic nitrate\Nfound in soil throughout China,
Dialogue: 0,0:42:48.04,0:42:50.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,known today as saltpeter.
Dialogue: 0,0:42:52.95,0:42:55.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When alchemists experimented\Nwith this formula,
Dialogue: 0,0:42:55.52,0:42:57.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it burst into flame,
Dialogue: 0,0:42:57.68,0:42:59.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,injuring the alchemists,
Dialogue: 0,0:42:59.82,0:43:01.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Explosion)
Dialogue: 0,0:43:01.26,0:43:03.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and burning down their laboratory.
Dialogue: 0,0:43:05.94,0:43:10.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,From that disaster was born \Na chemical mixture like none other.
Dialogue: 0,0:43:15.04,0:43:18.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It may have failed\Nas an elixir of immortality,
Dialogue: 0,0:43:18.19,0:43:22.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it would prove to be\Na potent agent of death.
Dialogue: 0,0:43:25.27,0:43:29.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This Chinese Buddhist scroll \Ndating from around 950 CE,
Dialogue: 0,0:43:29.43,0:43:32.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,depicts demons surrounding\Na seated Buddha.
Dialogue: 0,0:43:34.26,0:43:39.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One demon holds what the Chinese called\Na "huo quiang", or fire lance.
Dialogue: 0,0:43:42.35,0:43:44.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's the earliest known image of a weapon
Dialogue: 0,0:43:44.91,0:43:48.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,powered by that deadly mixture \Nof saltpeter and sulfur.
Dialogue: 0,0:43:51.52,0:43:55.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Known to history as gunpowder.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:01.09,0:44:03.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the early 13th century,
Dialogue: 0,0:44:03.54,0:44:06.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Mongols attacked China's Jin Dynasty.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:07.20,0:44:11.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Jin Dynasty's army fought back \Nwith exploding gunpowder bombs.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:15.76,0:44:18.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But as the Mongols conquered \Nmore and more of China,
Dialogue: 0,0:44:18.86,0:44:22.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Han Chinese artillerymen\Njoined their armies
Dialogue: 0,0:44:22.42,0:44:26.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and marched West, bringing\Ntheir gunpowder weapons with them.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:29.14,0:44:32.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Mongols attacked \NRussian and Polish cities
Dialogue: 0,0:44:32.29,0:44:34.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with exploding fire bombs.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:36.12,0:44:39.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And Europeans found out the hard way \Nwhat gunpowder could do.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:44.40,0:44:46.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the end of the 13th century,
Dialogue: 0,0:44:46.76,0:44:49.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the formula for gunpowder \Nwas known as far West as England,
Dialogue: 0,0:44:51.75,0:44:55.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and Europeans were inventing \Ntheir own versions of the new weapons.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:59.87,0:45:04.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It wasn't long before this Chinese \Ninvention changed European history.
Dialogue: 0,0:45:08.38,0:45:11.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,On 26th August, 1346,
Dialogue: 0,0:45:11.42,0:45:14.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,near the village of Crecy\Nin northern France,
Dialogue: 0,0:45:14.69,0:45:18.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the armies of France and England\Nprepared to fight.
Dialogue: 0,0:45:26.94,0:45:30.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Mounted on their war steeds, \Nencased in their armor,
Dialogue: 0,0:45:30.58,0:45:33.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the flower of French nobility \Nformed their battle line,
Dialogue: 0,0:45:42.73,0:45:46.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while the English deployed \Na very different force.
Dialogue: 0,0:45:50.20,0:45:52.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thousands of expert archers.
Dialogue: 0,0:45:59.97,0:46:04.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The French sent their higher Genoese\Ncrossbowmen to attack the English
Dialogue: 0,0:46:04.58,0:46:07.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,before French knights annihilated them.
Dialogue: 0,0:46:14.81,0:46:17.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the English king, Edward III,
Dialogue: 0,0:46:17.43,0:46:20.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,had spent years training his longbow men.
Dialogue: 0,0:46:24.52,0:46:27.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And all that training\Nwas about to pay off.
Dialogue: 0,0:46:41.43,0:46:46.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Nothing like this had been seen\Non a western battlefield up to this time.
Dialogue: 0,0:46:46.68,0:46:51.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The first time that a volley of arrows \Nwas unleashed by the archers at Crecy
Dialogue: 0,0:46:52.21,0:46:55.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would have represented \Nsomething completely new
Dialogue: 0,0:46:55.37,0:46:58.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to many of those\Nin the French army watching it.
Dialogue: 0,0:46:58.55,0:47:01.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A cloud of arrows descending towards them.
Dialogue: 0,0:47:02.44,0:47:04.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It would have been frightening,
Dialogue: 0,0:47:04.73,0:47:07.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and of course the effect\Nwas almost immediate.
Dialogue: 0,0:47:11.66,0:47:15.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Showered by English arrows, \Nthe Genoese turned and ran,
Dialogue: 0,0:47:17.32,0:47:19.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and according to medieval \Naccounts of the battle,
Dialogue: 0,0:47:19.92,0:47:23.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were also panicked \Nby another English weapon.
Dialogue: 0,0:47:32.03,0:47:35.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Giovanni Villani, writing\Nvery soon after the battle,
Dialogue: 0,0:47:35.21,0:47:39.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,says in his chronicle that \Nso loud and intimidating
Dialogue: 0,0:47:39.69,0:47:42.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was the noise created by the guns
Dialogue: 0,0:47:42.36,0:47:45.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they thought God was thundering.
Dialogue: 0,0:47:48.100,0:47:51.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"The English guns cast\Niron balls by means of fire.
Dialogue: 0,0:47:52.69,0:47:54.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"They made a noise like thunder
Dialogue: 0,0:47:55.02,0:47:57.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"and caused much loss\Nin men and horses."
Dialogue: 0,0:48:04.84,0:48:07.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Noise like that would have been \Nunprecedented
Dialogue: 0,0:48:07.41,0:48:09.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to the soldiers on the battlefield.
Dialogue: 0,0:48:10.54,0:48:13.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Nothing in their lives\Ncould have prepared them
Dialogue: 0,0:48:13.67,0:48:15.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for a a bang of that size
Dialogue: 0,0:48:15.46,0:48:19.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and accompanied by smoke\Nand acrid sulfur smell,
Dialogue: 0,0:48:19.66,0:48:22.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which would hang in the air.
Dialogue: 0,0:48:22.41,0:48:25.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The impact of which, of course,\Nthey couldn't see
Dialogue: 0,0:48:25.06,0:48:27.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until men around them dropped.
Dialogue: 0,0:48:29.09,0:48:32.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Not even professional soldiers \Nlike the Genoese
Dialogue: 0,0:48:32.30,0:48:36.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would have experienced anything \Nlike this before in their lives.
Dialogue: 0,0:48:36.19,0:48:38.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That would have been terrifying,
Dialogue: 0,0:48:38.81,0:48:41.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it's no wonder\Nthat they scattered and ran.
Dialogue: 0,0:48:44.02,0:48:49.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They turned and fled into the face\Nof the oncoming French cavalry charge.
Dialogue: 0,0:48:50.10,0:48:53.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The French cavalry were now\Ncoming onto the battlefield
Dialogue: 0,0:48:53.20,0:48:55.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they were appalled
Dialogue: 0,0:48:55.31,0:48:59.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at these people they'd hired\Nrunning away.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:01.27,0:49:03.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they cursed them\Nand they rode into them,
Dialogue: 0,0:49:03.85,0:49:06.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and as many Genoese fell to French hooves
Dialogue: 0,0:49:06.72,0:49:09.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as they did to English \Narrows and gunshots.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:11.81,0:49:14.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the French knights, \Nall 12,000 of them,
Dialogue: 0,0:49:14.22,0:49:16.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,double the size of the English army,
Dialogue: 0,0:49:16.10,0:49:18.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they came charging down onto the English.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:21.91,0:49:26.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they, too, fell to the English arrows\Nand the English gunshot,
Dialogue: 0,0:49:27.62,0:49:30.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they came again and again and again.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:30.50,0:49:32.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,15, 16 times, they came.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:34.71,0:49:36.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And their horses were ripped to shreds
Dialogue: 0,0:49:36.72,0:49:39.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the men were thrown from their horses.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:39.20,0:49:40.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And those that weren't thrown,
Dialogue: 0,0:49:40.65,0:49:43.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they had the opportunity\Nthat the dagger men rushed in
Dialogue: 0,0:49:43.22,0:49:45.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they brought these knights down.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:50.79,0:49:54.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This was a moment in History\Nwhere the world changed.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:54.79,0:49:58.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It spelled the beginning of the end \Nfor the medieval knight.
Dialogue: 0,0:50:01.77,0:50:04.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Battle of Crecy\Nhas gone down in history
Dialogue: 0,0:50:04.22,0:50:07.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as one of the earliest uses \Nof gunpowder weapons
Dialogue: 0,0:50:07.56,0:50:10.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on a European battlefield.
Dialogue: 0,0:50:17.99,0:50:19.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some 500 years after,
Dialogue: 0,0:50:19.98,0:50:22.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it burned down \Na Chinese alchemist's workshop,
Dialogue: 0,0:50:22.75,0:50:26.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,gunpowder had become \Ndestiny's weapon of choice.
Dialogue: 0,0:50:28.57,0:50:31.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,After Crecy, it was only a matter of time
Dialogue: 0,0:50:31.61,0:50:35.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until the fates of peoples and nations\Nwere decided by the gun.
Dialogue: 0,0:50:40.13,0:50:42.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Within two centuries,
Dialogue: 0,0:50:42.39,0:50:45.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Europeans would use their powerful \Ngunpowder weapons
Dialogue: 0,0:50:45.35,0:50:47.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to dominate the world,
Dialogue: 0,0:50:51.75,0:50:55.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,creating empires that would evolve\Ninto today's global trading culture,
Dialogue: 0,0:50:59.83,0:51:03.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which binds people together\Nby commerce instead of the gun.
Dialogue: 0,0:51:10.02,0:51:13.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But before Europe could embark \Non its empire-building adventure,
Dialogue: 0,0:51:14.80,0:51:16.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,its medieval social order
Dialogue: 0,0:51:16.53,0:51:19.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would be shattered\Nby a catastrophic event.
Dialogue: 0,0:51:21.41,0:51:25.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One that would forge a new Europe\Nin a crucible of horror.
Dialogue: 0,0:51:29.15,0:51:31.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,While guns thundered at Crecy,
Dialogue: 0,0:51:31.64,0:51:34.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,something else was spreading\Nalong the Eurasian trade routes.
Dialogue: 0,0:51:39.61,0:51:43.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Something that would kill\Ntens of millions of Europeans.
Dialogue: 0,0:51:48.51,0:51:51.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,An apocalyptic destruction of human life
Dialogue: 0,0:51:52.35,0:51:55.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that would lay the foundations\Nof the modern world.
Dialogue: 0,0:52:18.10,0:52:20.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At the Battle of Crécy in 1346,
Dialogue: 0,0:52:21.26,0:52:24.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the English won \Nan historic victory over France,
Dialogue: 0,0:52:27.84,0:52:31.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,helped by a Chinese invention\Nthat had traveled to Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:52:40.34,0:52:42.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Gunpowder.
Dialogue: 0,0:53:18.78,0:53:20.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in the same year of 1346,
Dialogue: 0,0:53:21.52,0:53:24.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some 2,000 kilometres east of Crécy,
Dialogue: 0,0:53:25.24,0:53:29.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,another battle was taking place \Non the shores of the Black Sea.
Dialogue: 0,0:53:33.68,0:53:38.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A Mongol army had been laying siege\Nto the Crimean port city of Caffa,
Dialogue: 0,0:53:38.73,0:53:42.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a Silk Road trading post belonging\Nto the Italian city of Genoa.
Dialogue: 0,0:53:45.51,0:53:48.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Mongols were masters \Nof siege warfare.
Dialogue: 0,0:53:51.34,0:53:55.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But Caffa was still holding out\Nafter more than two years.
Dialogue: 0,0:53:58.98,0:54:02.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Suddenly, the Mongol army was decimated.
Dialogue: 0,0:54:02.95,0:54:06.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Not by Caffa's defenders, \Nbut by an unknown disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:54:10.00,0:54:12.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Mongols quickly ended their siege.
Dialogue: 0,0:54:13.12,0:54:14.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But before they left Caffa,
Dialogue: 0,0:54:14.100,0:54:18.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they loaded their siege engines \Nwith the corpses of their dead
Dialogue: 0,0:54:18.33,0:54:21.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and flung them over the city's walls,
Dialogue: 0,0:54:21.48,0:54:25.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,believing that the stench of death\Nwould kill the defenders.
Dialogue: 0,0:54:29.96,0:54:31.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Medieval chronicles say
Dialogue: 0,0:54:31.71,0:54:34.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that Caffa's defenders\Ndid die by the thousands,
Dialogue: 0,0:54:35.11,0:54:38.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but not from the smell of death.
Dialogue: 0,0:54:42.31,0:54:44.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One year later, in 1347,
Dialogue: 0,0:54:44.96,0:54:48.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the same disease that had killed\Nthe Mongols at Caffa
Dialogue: 0,0:54:49.14,0:54:51.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was killing people in Constantinople.
Dialogue: 0,0:54:53.43,0:54:58.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By 1348,it was killing people \Nacross Western Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:02.24,0:55:06.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By 1350, it was killing people\Nas far away as Greenland.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:11.45,0:55:14.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And terrified Europeans\Nhad given it a name.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:16.98,0:55:19.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Black Death.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:20.88,0:55:26.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In just under a decade, \Nfrom 1347 to 1356,
Dialogue: 0,0:55:27.18,0:55:31.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Black Death killed a\Nt least 25 million Europeans.,
Dialogue: 0,0:55:31.51,0:55:34.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one third of Europe's population.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:38.83,0:55:40.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Today, most scholars believe
Dialogue: 0,0:55:40.77,0:55:43.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the Black Death was \Nan outbreak of bubonic plague.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:44.46,0:55:48.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that was transmitted to humans\Nby infected fleas living on rats.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:52.01,0:55:54.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we believe\Nthat it spread across Eurasia
Dialogue: 0,0:55:54.87,0:55:58.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by hitching a ride with armies,\Nships, and caravans
Dialogue: 0,0:55:59.23,0:56:02.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,along trade routes \Nthat were already ancient
Dialogue: 0,0:56:02.36,0:56:05.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by the time of the Black Death.
Dialogue: 0,0:56:07.74,0:56:10.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Micro-organic travelers of all kinds
Dialogue: 0,0:56:10.48,0:56:13.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,have moved across Eurasia\Nfor thousands of years.
Dialogue: 0,0:56:15.21,0:56:19.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A bio-migration that has had \Nas big an impact on history
Dialogue: 0,0:56:19.03,0:56:23.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as the more famous exchanges\Nof new technologies and luxury goods.
Dialogue: 0,0:56:24.80,0:56:27.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as a recent discovery shows,
Dialogue: 0,0:56:27.36,0:56:30.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,tiny living things \Nmoving along the Silk Road
Dialogue: 0,0:56:30.44,0:56:33.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,brought life as well as death.
Dialogue: 0,0:56:34.58,0:56:36.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We were putting together some new methods
Dialogue: 0,0:56:37.06,0:56:39.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of looking for early agriculture,
Dialogue: 0,0:56:39.25,0:56:42.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and for that we needed to do a survey
Dialogue: 0,0:56:42.26,0:56:45.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of all the finds of early crops in Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:56:47.16,0:56:49.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When you looked at a map of all of Europe,
Dialogue: 0,0:56:49.23,0:56:52.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then you could see\Nthere were these Chinese crops
Dialogue: 0,0:56:52.14,0:56:55.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in small numbers very early on in Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:56:57.02,0:57:00.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Very early on" was around 2,000 BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:57:02.48,0:57:05.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when a Chinese grain\Ncalled broomcorn millet
Dialogue: 0,0:57:05.33,0:57:09.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,appears in the Eastern European\Narchaeological record.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:10.06,0:57:13.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The actual crop itself\Nwill decay or be eaten,
Dialogue: 0,0:57:14.17,0:57:16.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but rather fortunately,
Dialogue: 0,0:57:16.22,0:57:19.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if it's cooked and over-burnt,\Nit turns to carbon.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:19.68,0:57:23.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That will stay in the archaeological\Nrecord for a long time.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:27.37,0:57:29.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the Chinese province of inner Mongolia,
Dialogue: 0,0:57:30.44,0:57:33.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,archaeologists are studying\Nthe origins of broomcorn millet,
Dialogue: 0,0:57:34.63,0:57:37.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one of the world's oldest domestic crops.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:40.35,0:57:44.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We are looking at a broomcorn millet field\Nof almost 16 acres
Dialogue: 0,0:57:44.54,0:57:47.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The cultivation of broomcorn millet\Nin this place
Dialogue: 0,0:57:47.40,0:57:49.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,dates back to nearly 8000 years ago.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:49.95,0:57:53.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's the earliest area of human-cultivated\Nbroomcorn millet in the world.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:53.90,0:57:56.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,After broomcorn millet's birth\Nin this place,
Dialogue: 0,0:57:56.17,0:57:58.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it spread to the West from the East.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:58.05,0:58:00.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It spread to Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:01.50,0:58:04.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Since it originated from the East\Nand then spread to Europe,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:04.31,0:58:06.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it can be regarded \Nas an important contribution
Dialogue: 0,0:58:06.64,0:58:09.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of our Eastern civilization\Nto the Western counterpart.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:11.100,0:58:14.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it isn't clear just how and why
Dialogue: 0,0:58:15.14,0:58:19.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,broomcorn millet travelled thousands\Nof kilometres across Eurasia,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:19.81,0:58:22.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,through some of the world's\Nharshest environments,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:22.92,0:58:25.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all the way to Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:27.18,0:58:31.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Millet's long journey may have begun\Nsimply because it travelled so well.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:35.16,0:58:38.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Millets are essentially cereals, \Nbut they're very small.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:39.48,0:58:41.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And because they have very small grains,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:41.65,0:58:43.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they're hardy and they're tough,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:43.30,0:58:45.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they can grow quite fast.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:45.45,0:58:47.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Broomcorn millet, at a push,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:47.91,0:58:50.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,can get from seed to seed in 45 days.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:53.22,0:58:55.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can plant a seed in the ground
Dialogue: 0,0:58:55.30,0:58:58.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and 45 days later, \Nin the right conditions,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:58.80,0:59:00.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you may have plants.
Dialogue: 0,0:59:00.86,0:59:02.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's incredibly fast.
Dialogue: 0,0:59:02.72,0:59:04.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, if you're moving around parts of Asia,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:05.05,0:59:07.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where, on the one hand, \Nthere's a long winter,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:07.78,0:59:09.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a short growing season,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:09.37,0:59:12.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you can't particularly r\Nely on rainfall,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:12.47,0:59:16.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then something that gets a move on\Nin terms of its growth cycle
Dialogue: 0,0:59:16.12,0:59:18.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is very valuable.
Dialogue: 0,0:59:21.26,0:59:24.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are accounts of communities\Nthat are on horseback
Dialogue: 0,0:59:25.17,0:59:28.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for quite a lot of the time\Nand herding animals and so forth,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:28.50,0:59:32.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but for that short season of the year
Dialogue: 0,0:59:32.31,0:59:33.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that millet grows in,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:33.88,0:59:36.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they can actually \Nsow the millet on horseback,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:36.95,0:59:39.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,trample it in with the horse's feet,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:39.51,0:59:41.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then either leave \Na few teenagers there
Dialogue: 0,0:59:41.60,0:59:44.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to scare the birds off \Nfor a couple of months,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:44.17,0:59:47.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,come back two months later, \Nand harvest the crops.
Dialogue: 0,0:59:51.37,0:59:53.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Millet was a highly mobile grain,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:53.85,0:59:55.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but there wasn't any evidence
Dialogue: 0,0:59:55.71,0:59:58.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of how it might have travelled\Nfrom its home in northern China.
Dialogue: 0,1:00:02.17,1:00:08.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Until archaeologists found signs \Nof millet cultivation around 2500 BC
Dialogue: 0,1:00:09.10,1:00:13.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the foothills of the Tian Shan\NMountains in central Asia.
Dialogue: 0,1:00:16.06,1:00:18.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At that point we asked ourselves,
Dialogue: 0,1:00:18.04,1:00:20.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Well, what is it about these foothills?"
Dialogue: 0,1:00:20.30,1:00:22.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You know, "Why the foothills?"
Dialogue: 0,1:00:23.33,1:00:25.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Clearly, it's about water.
Dialogue: 0,1:00:26.63,1:00:29.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If one travels across the centre of Asia,
Dialogue: 0,1:00:29.60,1:00:32.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one realizes why water is a key.
Dialogue: 0,1:00:32.32,1:00:35.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And wherever you are in Asia, \Nit can be very dry, of course.
Dialogue: 0,1:00:36.11,1:00:38.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But if one goes uphill to those foothills,
Dialogue: 0,1:00:38.74,1:00:40.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then one has somewhere
Dialogue: 0,1:00:40.75,1:00:44.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where there will be streams\Nrunning off the mountains and water.
Dialogue: 0,1:00:47.16,1:00:50.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Archaeologists found that around 1,000 BC,
Dialogue: 0,1:00:50.21,1:00:53.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,millet farmers left theTian Shan foothills
Dialogue: 0,1:00:53.75,1:00:56.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and their reliable water supply
Dialogue: 0,1:00:56.29,1:00:59.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and began moving\Ninto much harsher environments.
Dialogue: 0,1:01:00.02,1:01:03.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We can see the confidence of farmers
Dialogue: 0,1:01:03.90,1:01:06.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,spreading out from where\Nthe water is really safe
Dialogue: 0,1:01:07.05,1:01:09.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to areas where you have to know more
Dialogue: 0,1:01:09.65,1:01:13.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about the water and the landscape \Nand the geography,
Dialogue: 0,1:01:13.16,1:01:16.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,both into the steppes to the north\Nand to the desert to the south.
Dialogue: 0,1:01:19.57,1:01:23.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Millet's local migrations\Nmay have linked it with the world.
Dialogue: 0,1:01:24.35,1:01:27.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Migrating millet farmers\Nin search of water
Dialogue: 0,1:01:27.08,1:01:29.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,may have settled near trade routes.
Dialogue: 0,1:01:33.07,1:01:35.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And long-distance travelers\Nwould have chosen routes
Dialogue: 0,1:01:35.66,1:01:38.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,near reliable sources of food and water.
Dialogue: 0,1:01:43.09,1:01:48.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I think very much \Nthose traders are definitely working
Dialogue: 0,1:01:49.08,1:01:51.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,through networks\Nthat are already centuries old.
Dialogue: 0,1:01:53.50,1:01:58.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's at least a millennium\Nbefore you see something crystallizing
Dialogue: 0,1:01:58.73,1:02:01.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that you can start calling the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:04.72,1:02:08.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Another discovery has revealed \Nthat this ancient grain migration
Dialogue: 0,1:02:08.16,1:02:11.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,wasn't only from East to West.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:14.25,1:02:17.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Wheat was transmitted from West to East,
Dialogue: 0,1:02:17.86,1:02:21.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,arrived in China and was accepted\Nas our main staple.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:21.32,1:02:26.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This reflects the transaction\Nbetween Eastern and Western cultures.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:29.53,1:02:32.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Eurasian steppe, acting as a route
Dialogue: 0,1:02:32.44,1:02:35.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for early exchanges between\NEastern and Western cultures.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:35.36,1:02:38.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is the predecessor\Nof the ancient Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:38.74,1:02:41.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Ethnic migration, the fusion of cultures,
Dialogue: 0,1:02:41.75,1:02:44.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the flow of trade\Nare ll embedded in this road.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:46.76,1:02:50.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Trading millet and wheat\Nbetween China and Europe
Dialogue: 0,1:02:50.16,1:02:52.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,may have done much more than feed people.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:54.59,1:02:58.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It may also have enabled\Nprofound social change.
Dialogue: 0,1:03:02.45,1:03:05.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Seeds germinate at one time of year
Dialogue: 0,1:03:05.41,1:03:08.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and are harvested another time of year,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:08.12,1:03:11.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that's kind\Nof hardwired into their biology.
Dialogue: 0,1:03:11.29,1:03:13.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so farming is a one-season activity,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:13.97,1:03:16.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and there are things going on\Nat other times of year.
Dialogue: 0,1:03:16.63,1:03:19.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And during the second millennium BC,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:19.26,1:03:21.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a number of societies are doing something
Dialogue: 0,1:03:21.26,1:03:23.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is quite radically different,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:23.13,1:03:28.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that is putting more\Nthan one season in a single year.
Dialogue: 0,1:03:29.49,1:03:31.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Crops like millet \Nare really useful for that,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:32.01,1:03:35.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in that if you are a western farmer,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:35.28,1:03:37.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with wheat and barley fields
Dialogue: 0,1:03:37.62,1:03:39.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,reaching maturity during the summer,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:39.99,1:03:41.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you think
Dialogue: 0,1:03:41.23,1:03:44.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Right, with the same plot of land,\N"I want to increase production.
Dialogue: 0,1:03:44.70,1:03:48.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"And so, I want another crop\Nafter I've harvested the first crop."
Dialogue: 0,1:03:49.58,1:03:52.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can't do a long season, \Nlarge-grain crop
Dialogue: 0,1:03:52.46,1:03:54.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like wheat and barley again,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:54.53,1:03:57.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so, something that's short and sharp\Nlike millet
Dialogue: 0,1:03:57.17,1:03:59.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can tag on to the end of it
Dialogue: 0,1:03:59.32,1:04:02.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and catch another season \Nbefore the winter's set in.
Dialogue: 0,1:04:05.30,1:04:08.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Interestingly, when you get to China, \Nit's the converse.
Dialogue: 0,1:04:08.61,1:04:11.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have this short season crop\Nalready there,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:11.04,1:04:13.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and by rearranging your life,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:13.32,1:04:17.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can bring a long season crop\Nsuch as wheat and barley in at that stage.
Dialogue: 0,1:04:17.72,1:04:20.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the implications are, \Nwith the same plot of land,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:21.14,1:04:25.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you could basically get \Ntwo harvests rather than one.
Dialogue: 0,1:04:25.37,1:04:28.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, two sets of calories rather than one.
Dialogue: 0,1:04:31.67,1:04:35.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It may release some of the community\Nto not farm at all
Dialogue: 0,1:04:36.02,1:04:40.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and occupy roles within cities,\Nor as craftspeople, or leaders.
Dialogue: 0,1:04:43.15,1:04:45.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If we look at the second millennium BC,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:45.74,1:04:47.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what we certainly see
Dialogue: 0,1:04:47.34,1:04:50.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is at the same time \Nas multi-cropping is there,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:51.24,1:04:54.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then there are a lot of the community,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:54.71,1:04:57.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are not farmers, \Nbut instead metalworkers,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:57.53,1:05:00.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or kings, or priests, or something else.
Dialogue: 0,1:05:00.16,1:05:02.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so what we see evidence of
Dialogue: 0,1:05:02.04,1:05:07.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is multi-cropping allows a non-farming\Nsector within the community.
Dialogue: 0,1:05:09.79,1:05:14.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, what we have is a small, \Nnot very impressive-looking seed,
Dialogue: 0,1:05:14.40,1:05:17.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but because of the way it grows\Nand because of its biology,
Dialogue: 0,1:05:17.81,1:05:20.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it has a massive impact
Dialogue: 0,1:05:20.34,1:05:22.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in changing the productivity
Dialogue: 0,1:05:22.50,1:05:25.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the heartlands of western farming.
Dialogue: 0,1:05:27.64,1:05:30.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, those western farmlands\Ncould, in the same area,
Dialogue: 0,1:05:30.39,1:05:32.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,produce two crops rather than one,
Dialogue: 0,1:05:32.80,1:05:35.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that enabled a whole series of things
Dialogue: 0,1:05:35.40,1:05:38.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we associate \Nwith the word "civilization."
Dialogue: 0,1:05:43.29,1:05:47.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Finding Chinese millet in Europe\Nand European wheat and barley in China
Dialogue: 0,1:05:47.96,1:05:51.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,suggests that long before the Silk Road,
Dialogue: 0,1:05:51.20,1:05:55.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,East and West were introducing \None another to new foods,
Dialogue: 0,1:05:56.28,1:05:58.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that the movement of crops
Dialogue: 0,1:05:58.66,1:06:02.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,may have helped create\Nthe earliest East-West trade routes.
Dialogue: 0,1:06:05.27,1:06:08.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in the deserts of far western China,
Dialogue: 0,1:06:08.07,1:06:10.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,archaeologists\Nhave discovered another way
Dialogue: 0,1:06:10.48,1:06:12.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,living organisms\Ncould travel the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:06:15.22,1:06:18.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is Xuanquanzhi relay station,
Dialogue: 0,1:06:18.16,1:06:21.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an archaeological site \Nnear the town of Dunhuang,
Dialogue: 0,1:06:21.95,1:06:24.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a major stopping point on the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:06:29.01,1:06:31.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,2,000 years ago during the Han dynasty,
Dialogue: 0,1:06:32.02,1:06:36.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Xuanquanzhi was a very busy\Nand very cosmopolitan place.
Dialogue: 0,1:06:39.54,1:06:43.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,According to records \Nwritten on bamboo and wood
Dialogue: 0,1:06:43.34,1:06:45.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,unearthed from Xuanquanzhi
Dialogue: 0,1:06:45.82,1:06:49.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Xuanquanzhi was not only serving\Nas a relay station,
Dialogue: 0,1:06:49.31,1:06:52.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but also as a place to receive \Ncaravans and government officials.
Dialogue: 0,1:06:52.85,1:06:56.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,During the Han Dinasty, \Nthe major officials received here
Dialogue: 0,1:06:56.01,1:06:59.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,included the king of Kholan Kingdom\Nfrom the Western Regions,
Dialogue: 0,1:06:59.28,1:07:02.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the king of the Wusun, \Nalso called the Issedones
Dialogue: 0,1:07:02.33,1:07:05.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the king of the Kangu, \Nalso called the Sogdians.
Dialogue: 0,1:07:05.56,1:07:08.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At most, the number of received guests\Nwould be over 1000.
Dialogue: 0,1:07:11.92,1:07:16.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Therefore, this place was filled up\Nwith a mixture of people from all regions.
Dialogue: 0,1:07:17.91,1:07:20.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It would be used for merchants,
Dialogue: 0,1:07:20.12,1:07:22.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it would also be used\Nfor government business.
Dialogue: 0,1:07:22.98,1:07:24.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,People could travel long distances
Dialogue: 0,1:07:24.73,1:07:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,knowing that there was somewhere\Nthey could stay
Dialogue: 0,1:07:27.02,1:07:29.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,be refreshed and recover,\Nchange their horses,
Dialogue: 0,1:07:29.34,1:07:32.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then move on\Nto the next relay station.
Dialogue: 0,1:07:34.12,1:07:37.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The wonderful thing about\Nthe Xuanquanzhi trading post
Dialogue: 0,1:07:37.66,1:07:43.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was that it's in a part of the country\Nthat is not built up now,
Dialogue: 0,1:07:43.18,1:07:47.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the environment, very, very dry\Nand often very cold in the winter,
Dialogue: 0,1:07:47.14,1:07:49.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,means that things\Nare preserved there very well.
Dialogue: 0,1:07:49.82,1:07:52.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, a lot of the things \N- inside that trading post -
Dialogue: 0,1:07:52.89,1:07:55.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,have survived instead of decomposing.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:01.12,1:08:04.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Excavators were especially excited\Nto find something
Dialogue: 0,1:08:04.27,1:08:07.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that perhaps only\Nan archaeologist could love:
Dialogue: 0,1:08:09.49,1:08:12.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the 2,000-year-old equivalent \Nof toilet paper.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:14.08,1:08:16.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In China, they wrote back,\Nin the Han dynasty times,
Dialogue: 0,1:08:16.100,1:08:19.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how they would have a stick \Nwith cloth wrapped on the end
Dialogue: 0,1:08:19.74,1:08:21.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for people to wipe themselves with.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:21.42,1:08:24.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There were quite a few \Nof these sticks thrown into the latrine
Dialogue: 0,1:08:24.45,1:08:27.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as if people discarded them\Nin there when they'd finished.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:27.21,1:08:30.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These sticks have been found\Nat some other excavations in China as well
Dialogue: 0,1:08:30.57,1:08:32.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but what's great about this relay station
Dialogue: 0,1:08:32.53,1:08:34.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is we still have the cloth\Nwrapped on the end
Dialogue: 0,1:08:34.66,1:08:37.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we still have the human faeces on.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:38.05,1:08:41.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, we scraped off \Nthe dried faeces from the cloth
Dialogue: 0,1:08:41.85,1:08:43.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and took them to the lab.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:43.75,1:08:45.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We found four different\Nspecies of parasite
Dialogue: 0,1:08:45.83,1:08:47.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in those who used this latrine.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:47.99,1:08:51.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Two of the species are spread by faeces
Dialogue: 0,1:08:51.08,1:08:54.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,contaminating your food\Nor your hands or your drink:
Dialogue: 0,1:08:54.41,1:08:56.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,roundworm and whipworm.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:56.89,1:08:59.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Another species was a kind of tapeworm
Dialogue: 0,1:08:59.81,1:09:03.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they probably acquired\Nby eating raw or undercooked pork.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:04.29,1:09:07.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then, we found\Nthe really exciting find,
Dialogue: 0,1:09:07.48,1:09:09.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which was the Chinese liver fluke.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:11.33,1:09:13.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a small flatworm
Dialogue: 0,1:09:13.98,1:09:16.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that lives in eastern and southern\NChina and in Korea.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:17.33,1:09:20.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It can only survive in marshy, wet places.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:20.31,1:09:25.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But here, we found it 1500 kilometres away\Nfrom anywhere that has it in modern times.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:27.00,1:09:29.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, it wasn't what we expected to find.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:29.82,1:09:33.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was brilliant that we could find it\Non the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:33.16,1:09:35.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The liver fluke requires a lifecycle
Dialogue: 0,1:09:35.32,1:09:37.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where it passes through freshwater snails,
Dialogue: 0,1:09:37.60,1:09:39.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and through small fish\Nand then, bigger fish.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:39.94,1:09:43.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you cook the fish, \Nthen you don't get the liver fluke.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:43.37,1:09:46.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But if you eat the fish raw, \Nthen it hatches out in your stomach,
Dialogue: 0,1:09:46.51,1:09:49.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,migrates through your body, \Ncrawls into the liver,
Dialogue: 0,1:09:49.44,1:09:50.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then develops there.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:51.48,1:09:54.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There was no way that people\Nin the area of this relay station
Dialogue: 0,1:09:54.91,1:09:57.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could have caught it \Nin that particular area
Dialogue: 0,1:09:57.29,1:09:59.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it was far too dry.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:59.32,1:10:00.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There were no lakes.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:00.78,1:10:03.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There were no freshwater snails\Nand fish for them to infect.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:04.96,1:10:10.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The discovery of the liver fluke\Nis of great importance.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:12.84,1:10:17.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It indicates that the caravans \Nor government servants
Dialogue: 0,1:10:17.94,1:10:21.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,brought their excrement,\Nas well as diseases ,here
Dialogue: 0,1:10:21.60,1:10:25.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,over thousands of kilometers\Nof travel to this place, Xuanquan station.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:30.26,1:10:33.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,With state of the art overseas analysis,
Dialogue: 0,1:10:33.41,1:10:36.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we are comparing it with similar\Nevidence originating in Europe.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:36.84,1:10:39.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to figure out whether the liver was spread
Dialogue: 0,1:10:39.72,1:10:42.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from China's eastern \Ncoastal area to Europe
Dialogue: 0,1:10:42.61,1:10:45.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or if it was spread from Europe to China
Dialogue: 0,1:10:45.54,1:10:48.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or if the disease spread \Nbetween these two areas.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:48.06,1:10:50.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We are doing some further research.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:51.72,1:10:54.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The finds at Xuanquanzhi have shown
Dialogue: 0,1:10:54.50,1:10:58.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that humans could carry diseases\Nlong distances along the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:11:03.89,1:11:07.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Another discovery has revealed\Nwhat could happen when they did.
Dialogue: 0,1:11:13.35,1:11:18.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In 2009, German scientists began\Ninvestigating a puzzling discovery
Dialogue: 0,1:11:18.84,1:11:21.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the Bavarian town of Aschheim.
Dialogue: 0,1:11:25.68,1:11:31.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,About 20 years ago a graveyard was found \Nwhich contained more than 400 individuals.
Dialogue: 0,1:11:32.10,1:11:38.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We dated it back to a period from \Naround the 5th century to the 7th century.
Dialogue: 0,1:11:38.44,1:11:41.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was exciting for us \Nthat there were a lot of graves
Dialogue: 0,1:11:41.41,1:11:44.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that contained more than one person
Dialogue: 0,1:11:44.38,1:11:51.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,around 20 graves \Nwhere 2 to 5 people were buried
Dialogue: 0,1:11:53.14,1:11:56.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Aschheim looked like any other cemetery
Dialogue: 0,1:11:56.97,1:11:58.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we would expect to find here
Dialogue: 0,1:11:58.88,1:12:00.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,except for these multiple burials
Dialogue: 0,1:12:00.91,1:12:05.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These people were buried together\Nin one grave and that made us curious.
Dialogue: 0,1:12:05.37,1:12:07.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we asked ourselves why exactly
Dialogue: 0,1:12:07.15,1:12:09.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these people were buried\Ntogether in one grave
Dialogue: 0,1:12:10.88,1:12:14.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Aschheim mass burial \Nwas an archaeological enigma,
Dialogue: 0,1:12:15.13,1:12:17.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but there was one crucial clue.
Dialogue: 0,1:12:19.38,1:12:23.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The bodies had been buried\Nduring the 6th century CE.
Dialogue: 0,1:12:29.74,1:12:34.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the 6th century, a terrifying illness\Ncalled the Plague of Justinian
Dialogue: 0,1:12:34.42,1:12:37.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,ravaged the Eastern Roman Empire.
Dialogue: 0,1:12:41.74,1:12:47.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It killed 30 to 50 million people\Nin Europe, Asia, and Africa,
Dialogue: 0,1:12:49.38,1:12:52.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,nearly half of all the people on Earth.
Dialogue: 0,1:12:52.89,1:12:57.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Historians tell us that thousands\Nof people were lying on the street
Dialogue: 0,1:12:57.18,1:12:59.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that tens of thousands
Dialogue: 0,1:12:59.22,1:13:01.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were dying at the peak of the plague,
Dialogue: 0,1:13:01.65,1:13:05.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so many that they could not be buried.
Dialogue: 0,1:13:05.19,1:13:09.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The corpses were thrown \Ninto watchtowers and sealed inside
Dialogue: 0,1:13:09.88,1:13:13.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because no one knew what to do with them.
Dialogue: 0,1:13:13.48,1:13:17.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, this epidemic is quite comparable\Nto the Black Death.
Dialogue: 0,1:13:17.89,1:13:21.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We asked ourselves what\Nthe multiple burials were about
Dialogue: 0,1:13:21.01,1:13:24.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and chose to screen for plague pathogen
Dialogue: 0,1:13:26.51,1:13:30.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Justinian plague arrived\Nin Constantinople on ships from Egypt,
Dialogue: 0,1:13:32.53,1:13:34.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but what the disease was
Dialogue: 0,1:13:34.68,1:13:37.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and where it came from \Nremained unknown.
Dialogue: 0,1:13:39.67,1:13:42.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The team investigating\NAschheim's mass burial
Dialogue: 0,1:13:42.33,1:13:45.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,hoped its bones might reveal the answer.
Dialogue: 0,1:13:45.47,1:13:50.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We tested more than 20 individuals,\Nanalysing their DNA
Dialogue: 0,1:13:50.30,1:13:55.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and found small fragments \Nof plague DNA in four individuals,
Dialogue: 0,1:13:55.52,1:13:58.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Just on this young woman, \Non one young woman,
Dialogue: 0,1:13:58.89,1:14:01.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there was enough DNA\Nto be able to analyse it really well.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:01.48,1:14:03.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that is this individual.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:03.44,1:14:06.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This woman has quite open skull sutures.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:06.23,1:14:09.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is how we know \Nthat she died quite young.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:10.10,1:14:14.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We would estimate this individual's age \Nat approximately early 20s.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:14.92,1:14:17.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In this case, we would see
Dialogue: 0,1:14:17.54,1:14:20.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if we could find the plague pathogen
Dialogue: 0,1:14:21.01,1:14:24.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and to do that we prefer to use teeth
Dialogue: 0,1:14:25.01,1:14:28.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like these teeth here.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:28.43,1:14:30.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Teeth with a lot of root
Dialogue: 0,1:14:30.85,1:14:34.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because the root contains DNA
Dialogue: 0,1:14:34.34,1:14:37.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and because it is embedded in the jaw.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:37.06,1:14:42.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It is well protected there, \Nand the DNA is preserved there best.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:42.15,1:14:46.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then we took this tooth \Nto the laboratory
Dialogue: 0,1:14:46.36,1:14:50.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to extract and examine the DNA\Nwith chemical methods.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:51.12,1:14:54.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when we had looked at the DNA \Nof this individual
Dialogue: 0,1:14:54.11,1:14:57.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we determined that\Nwe had actually found Yersini pestis,
Dialogue: 0,1:14:57.38,1:15:01.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the plague pathogen, the Black Death's.
Dialogue: 0,1:15:01.72,1:15:04.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What we could also determine
Dialogue: 0,1:15:04.46,1:15:09.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that this pathogen did not develop\Nin Europe but evolved in Asia
Dialogue: 0,1:15:11.26,1:15:14.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Studies like the Aschheim DNA project
Dialogue: 0,1:15:14.21,1:15:17.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,have concluded that 800 years\Nbefore the Black Death,
Dialogue: 0,1:15:17.92,1:15:21.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a plague traveled the Silk Road
Dialogue: 0,1:15:21.15,1:15:25.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that centuries later,\Nthe Black Death followed it in its path.
Dialogue: 0,1:15:29.36,1:15:30.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Most scholars now agree
Dialogue: 0,1:15:30.89,1:15:34.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the Black Death\Noriginated in central Asia
Dialogue: 0,1:15:35.78,1:15:37.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that it first reached Europe
Dialogue: 0,1:15:37.73,1:15:40.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on Italian merchant ships \Nreturning from the East.
Dialogue: 0,1:15:51.93,1:15:55.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Black Death killed \Nwith incredible speed.
Dialogue: 0,1:16:00.03,1:16:03.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Victims had only \Na week to a few hours to live.
Dialogue: 0,1:16:07.37,1:16:10.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Entire towns and monasteries \Nwere wiped out,
Dialogue: 0,1:16:11.23,1:16:13.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and no one knew what to do.
Dialogue: 0,1:16:16.55,1:16:19.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It may have spread about five miles a day,
Dialogue: 0,1:16:19.19,1:16:24.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is a lot faster than a lot \Nof modern bubonic plague outbreaks.
Dialogue: 0,1:16:25.70,1:16:29.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Whether it was because of the rate\Nat which people fled from it
Dialogue: 0,1:16:29.99,1:16:33.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that spread it faster than it might \Notherwise have been.
Dialogue: 0,1:16:34.04,1:16:35.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it certainly was something
Dialogue: 0,1:16:35.64,1:16:38.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that had a dramatic effect\Non people in Europe.
Dialogue: 0,1:16:38.32,1:16:40.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They all wrote about it,\Nthey were all scared of it.
Dialogue: 0,1:17:17.80,1:17:19.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, they had some concept of contagion
Dialogue: 0,1:17:19.99,1:17:21.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the idea that the disease
Dialogue: 0,1:17:21.54,1:17:23.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could be spread\Nfrom one person to another,
Dialogue: 0,1:17:23.62,1:17:25.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they didn't know how.
Dialogue: 0,1:17:27.48,1:17:30.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They had no idea about bacteria
Dialogue: 0,1:17:30.06,1:17:32.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or the spread of microorganisms\Nat that stage,
Dialogue: 0,1:17:32.79,1:17:35.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so, they hadn't worked out \Nhow a disease was spread.
Dialogue: 0,1:17:35.63,1:17:38.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But they just realized that one person\Nseemed to be able
Dialogue: 0,1:17:38.26,1:17:40.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to spread it to the rest of their family,
Dialogue: 0,1:17:40.28,1:17:43.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so, they realized something\Nmust be happening there.
Dialogue: 0,1:17:58.57,1:18:00.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Baffled physicians consulted the works
Dialogue: 0,1:18:00.74,1:18:03.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of ancient authorities like Hippocrates,
Dialogue: 0,1:18:03.22,1:18:06.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who lived four centuries\Nbefore the birth of Jesus,
Dialogue: 0,1:18:08.90,1:18:12.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and Galen, who lived \Ntwo centuries after Jesus' death.
Dialogue: 0,1:18:16.70,1:18:20.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Hippocrates and Galen believed\Nthat illness was a result
Dialogue: 0,1:18:20.38,1:18:23.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of an imbalance among\Nfour so-called humours:
Dialogue: 0,1:18:24.78,1:18:28.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,blood, phlegm, \Nyellow bile, and black bile.
Dialogue: 0,1:18:31.89,1:18:35.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The theory was that if you had\Nyour four humours in balance
Dialogue: 0,1:18:35.89,1:18:39.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— your blood, your phlegm, \Nyour black bile and your yellow bile —
Dialogue: 0,1:18:39.04,1:18:40.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then you'd be healthy.
Dialogue: 0,1:18:40.42,1:18:41.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If they came out of balance
Dialogue: 0,1:18:41.89,1:18:44.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or if you had corruption \Nof one of your humours,
Dialogue: 0,1:18:44.85,1:18:47.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then that would make you unwell.
Dialogue: 0,1:18:47.57,1:18:49.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, the treatments that doctors used
Dialogue: 0,1:18:49.58,1:18:52.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were largely based on their understanding\Nof humoural theory.
Dialogue: 0,1:18:52.84,1:18:56.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, at the beginning, they tried\Nthe normal treatments
Dialogue: 0,1:18:56.25,1:19:00.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of dietary modification\Nand bloodletting and baths and so on,
Dialogue: 0,1:19:00.48,1:19:02.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they had no effect.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:04.86,1:19:08.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They believed that bad vapours \Nwere coming up from the ground,
Dialogue: 0,1:19:08.76,1:19:11.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,making people ill, \Naffecting their humours.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:11.79,1:19:15.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They believed that a strong \Nsoutherly wind was a bad thing
Dialogue: 0,1:19:15.98,1:19:18.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that made a lot of people ill,
Dialogue: 0,1:19:19.15,1:19:22.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it was a combination \Nof the alignments of the planets,
Dialogue: 0,1:19:22.36,1:19:26.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because they believed in astrology \Nand its effect on your risk of disease.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:27.77,1:19:31.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They really didn't have a structured \Nmedical approach to how to deal with it.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:31.97,1:19:33.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It took everyone off guard.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:33.80,1:19:36.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,No one knew how to deal with it.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:38.43,1:19:40.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The doctors were effectively powerless.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:49.05,1:19:52.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some citizens attempted another cure.
Dialogue: 0,1:20:02.42,1:20:05.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Jews in Europe suffered \Nfewer deaths from plague.
Dialogue: 0,1:20:07.10,1:20:09.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That may have been because\Nthey were socially isolated
Dialogue: 0,1:20:09.95,1:20:13.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and practiced better hygiene \Nthan the general population.
Dialogue: 0,1:20:15.48,1:20:17.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But surviving the Black Death
Dialogue: 0,1:20:17.95,1:20:21.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,cost thousands \Nof European Jews their lives.
Dialogue: 0,1:20:22.84,1:20:25.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,All across plague-stricken Europe,
Dialogue: 0,1:20:25.11,1:20:28.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the already age-old Christian\Nprejudice against Jews
Dialogue: 0,1:20:28.90,1:20:31.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,exploded into murderous hatred.
Dialogue: 0,1:20:32.24,1:20:35.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They believed that people \Nwith leprosy or Jewish people
Dialogue: 0,1:20:35.64,1:20:38.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,may have actually exacerbated the plague\Nby poisoning people.
Dialogue: 0,1:20:44.82,1:20:48.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, this is a sign of how panicked\Nand how worried everybody was,
Dialogue: 0,1:20:48.58,1:20:52.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they were thinking of really \Nquite bizarre kind of interpretations
Dialogue: 0,1:20:52.43,1:20:55.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as to why everybody was becoming sick.
Dialogue: 0,1:21:05.47,1:21:07.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,While mobs murdered Jews,
Dialogue: 0,1:21:07.74,1:21:10.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,physicians tried to stop the Black Death.