[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:04.64,0:00:08.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Eurasia: the world's largest land mass.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:10.43,0:00:14.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some 10,000 kilometers from the Pacific\Nto the Atlantic ocean.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:16.79,0:00:19.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A formidable distance, \Neven in today's world.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:24.34,0:00:26.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And yet over that vast distance,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:27.95,0:00:31.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,human beings have pursued\None of history's greatest enterprises:
Dialogue: 0,0:00:33.90,0:00:35.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:37.94,0:00:40.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A tremendously profitable trade route
Dialogue: 0,0:00:41.14,0:00:43.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and so much more.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:44.13,0:00:45.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,For thousands of years,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:45.71,0:00:47.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,exotic goods,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:48.48,0:00:50.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,new technologies,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:52.38,0:00:54.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,conquering armies,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:56.79,0:00:58.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and brilliant ideas
Dialogue: 0,0:01:00.77,0:01:02.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,traveled along the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:10.51,0:01:13.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Silk Road trade helped to build empires
Dialogue: 0,0:01:14.21,0:01:16.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and to break them.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:17.06,0:01:19.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It fanned the fires of revolution.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:21.50,0:01:24.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Drove great explorations,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:25.31,0:01:29.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and forged powerful bonds\Nbetween far away peoples.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:31.68,0:01:35.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Silk Road made human beings realize
Dialogue: 0,0:01:35.86,0:01:38.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that there are other people out there,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:38.95,0:01:43.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it opened the eyes \Nof the east and the west.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:44.66,0:01:50.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is the story of how Silk Road trade \Nmade so much more than money.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:53.54,0:01:57.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's the epic tale of how the Silk Road\Nhelped create a world;
Dialogue: 0,0:01:58.86,0:02:01.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a world that created us.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:16.38,0:02:20.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,2,000 years ago, the Roman Empire\Nseemed unstoppable.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:25.61,0:02:28.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Rome had conquered much of Europe
Dialogue: 0,0:02:28.82,0:02:32.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and was sending its legions beyond\Nthe eastern Mediterranean
Dialogue: 0,0:02:32.98,0:02:35.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to the Middle East
Dialogue: 0,0:02:35.65,0:02:38.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-- gateway to the riches of Asia.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:41.36,0:02:45.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But a journey to the east \Ncould become a road of blood.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:49.02,0:02:53.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In 53 BC. near the Mesopotamian\Ntown of Carrhae,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:54.16,0:02:58.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Parthians — an empire blending\NPersian and Greek cultures —
Dialogue: 0,0:02:58.35,0:03:00.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,confronted a Roman army.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:06.44,0:03:09.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The outcome of the battle\Nseemed beyond doubt.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.39,0:03:18.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some 40,000 Romans\Nfaced only 10,000 Parthians.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:20.52,0:03:24.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And Rome's legions\Nwere Europe's finest foot soldiers.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:26.70,0:03:28.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There was just one problem.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:31.04,0:03:33.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Parthian army didn't fight on foot.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:36.37,0:03:38.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Parthians, they were cavalry.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:38.91,0:03:41.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were horse archers.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:41.12,0:03:43.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Versatile. Rode like the wind.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:46.45,0:03:49.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What the Romans did\Nwas what the Romans always did.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:49.24,0:03:51.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They took a fixed position.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:51.83,0:03:55.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were ordered into a hollow square\Ndefending all sides.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:58.15,0:04:00.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But that was nothing \Nto the Parthian horse archers
Dialogue: 0,0:04:00.83,0:04:03.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because they could just ride\Naround them, and they did.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:03.56,0:04:06.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They galloped around and around \Nand around and around,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:06.55,0:04:08.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,shooting as they went.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:11.94,0:04:16.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thousands and thousands of arrows\Nloosed into those Romans.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:20.10,0:04:24.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What the Romans eventually did \Nwas they were ordered to go into testudo.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:24.69,0:04:28.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's that Roman formation\Nwhere they lock their shields together
Dialogue: 0,0:04:28.70,0:04:32.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and put the next layer\Nof shields to make a roof.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:33.69,0:04:36.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Testudo is Latin for tortoise.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:39.24,0:04:42.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the Parthians \Nhad the answer to this tortoise.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:43.78,0:04:46.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They had a hammer \Nto break open its shell.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:49.83,0:04:52.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Parthian hammer was a cataphract,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:53.66,0:04:56.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a Greek word meaning \N"clothed in full armor".
Dialogue: 0,0:04:58.27,0:05:01.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Horse and rider wore heavy coats of mail.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:04.05,0:05:07.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The cataphract was the ancient world\Nequivalent of a battle tank.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:15.97,0:05:19.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At Carrhae, charging cataphracts\Nbroke open the testudo.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.70,0:05:29.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Exposing the Romans inside\Nto more arrow attacks.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:36.87,0:05:40.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some 30,000 Romans \Nwere killed or captured.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:45.81,0:05:48.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Parthian losses were minor.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:49.71,0:05:53.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was one of Rome's \Nworst military defeats.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:55.42,0:05:58.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it may have been \Nsomething else as well.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:08.95,0:06:10.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A Roman historian wrote
Dialogue: 0,0:06:10.72,0:06:13.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the Parthians dazzled the Romans
Dialogue: 0,0:06:13.13,0:06:16.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with banners made of a beautiful fabric:
Dialogue: 0,0:06:16.70,0:06:18.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,silk.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:25.52,0:06:27.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That may only be a legend.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:29.44,0:06:31.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But around the time of Carrhae,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:31.53,0:06:34.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Romans began coveting Chinese silk,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:35.45,0:06:38.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and China began selling silk to Rome
Dialogue: 0,0:06:38.32,0:06:41.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in exchange for fine\NRoman glassware and gold.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:45.89,0:06:49.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Inspiring the name\Nwe give Eurasian trade today:
Dialogue: 0,0:06:51.45,0:06:53.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:00.20,0:07:03.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But long before Romans and Parthians\Nfought at Carrhae,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:03.87,0:07:08.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,trade between the peoples of Eurasia\Nwere shaping lives,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:08.08,0:07:10.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,making new things possible,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:10.78,0:07:13.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and changing the world.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:18.89,0:07:22.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At Carrhae, the Parthians \Nwon with a style of warfare
Dialogue: 0,0:07:22.63,0:07:25.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that had evolved centuries earlier
Dialogue: 0,0:07:25.11,0:07:27.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and thousands of kilometers away.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:31.37,0:07:34.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,On the steppes of Central Asia,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:36.48,0:07:38.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an ocean of land,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:41.41,0:07:44.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where victory in battle, and life itself,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:44.19,0:07:47.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,depended on moving \Nvery far, very fast.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:53.14,0:07:55.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thousands of years \Nbefore the battle of Carrhae,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:55.94,0:08:00.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a transportation revolution \Ntook place on these vast plains.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:09.73,0:08:14.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's good evidence for the existence\Nof domesticated horses
Dialogue: 0,0:08:14.73,0:08:20.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in what is today Kazakhstan\Nand southern Russia by 3500 BC.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:26.47,0:08:30.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we actually think that probably\Nhorses were domesticated
Dialogue: 0,0:08:30.42,0:08:35.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and began to be ridden \N500 or maybe 1,000 years before that,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:35.27,0:08:37.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,maybe as early as 4500 BC.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:42.07,0:08:44.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The domestication of the horse
Dialogue: 0,0:08:44.24,0:08:46.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was the first step\Ntowards cavalry warfare.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:50.59,0:08:54.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the second step \Nwould be a long time coming.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:56.98,0:09:00.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The first use of horses in warfare \Nwas with chariot warfare,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:01.25,0:09:04.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we have that well established\NTutankhamun's chariot,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:05.06,0:09:08.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which many people have seen\Nin museum exhibits.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:09.62,0:09:12.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we know that people\Nwere using chariots in warfare
Dialogue: 0,0:09:12.100,0:09:17.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,starting in the Near East\Nin about 1600, 1700 BC..
Dialogue: 0,0:09:19.95,0:09:23.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Horses were not used as organized cavalry
Dialogue: 0,0:09:23.40,0:09:26.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until after about 900 BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:26.95,0:09:30.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,almost 1,000 years \Nafter chariot warfare began.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:30.70,0:09:36.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it's always seemed odd to me\Nthat cavalry began after chariotry.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:37.99,0:09:40.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chariotry is very difficult to manage.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:40.57,0:09:43.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have to train horses to work together.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:43.12,0:09:45.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They have to pull this clumsy vehicle
Dialogue: 0,0:09:45.92,0:09:49.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that has two people in it:\Na driver and a warrior.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:50.82,0:09:54.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Training the units to work together,\Nvery difficult thing to do,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:54.86,0:09:57.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,whereas jumping on the back of a horse\Nis an easy thing.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:59.63,0:10:02.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, why did cavalry come after chariotry?
Dialogue: 0,0:10:04.82,0:10:08.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I think the real reason \Nthat cavalry waited
Dialogue: 0,0:10:08.58,0:10:12.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that you needed to have\Nreally three innovations.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:21.34,0:10:26.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The earliest evidence for the recurved bow\Nis in Shang Dynasty, China,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:26.10,0:10:29.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,probably dated between 1300 and 1100 BC.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:31.58,0:10:34.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Shang emperors communicated \Nwith their ancestors
Dialogue: 0,0:10:34.62,0:10:38.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by heating animal bones or turtle shells\Nuntil they cracked
Dialogue: 0,0:10:38.76,0:10:42.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then interpreting\Nthe patterns made by the cracks.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:42.90,0:10:45.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of these so-called oracle bones
Dialogue: 0,0:10:45.33,0:10:48.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is carved with the Chinese \Ncharacter for bow
Dialogue: 0,0:10:48.66,0:10:52.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— the earliest known image\Nof a recurved bow.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:53.32,0:10:55.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in the tomb of Lady Fuhao
Dialogue: 0,0:10:55.54,0:10:58.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— an imperial consort \Nand renowned military commander —
Dialogue: 0,0:10:58.100,0:11:01.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,archaeologists found more evidence.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:03.84,0:11:08.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a thumb cover \Nfor drawing bow string
Dialogue: 0,0:11:08.67,0:11:12.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and there's another piece that went\Nin the middle of a recurved bow,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:12.14,0:11:13.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a hand grip.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:13.34,0:11:15.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The bows themselves are not preserved,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:15.27,0:11:19.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so, it's a difficult thing to identify\Nthe origins of the recurved bow.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:21.38,0:11:23.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The different components of it
Dialogue: 0,0:11:23.41,0:11:26.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,probably came from different places\Ngeographically.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:28.18,0:11:31.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Just how far the recurved bow\Ntraveled across Eurasia
Dialogue: 0,0:11:31.22,0:11:36.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was revealed in 2005 at Yanghai,\Nin China's Xinjiang region.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:38.51,0:11:41.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Wooden bows rarely survive \Nburial in the ground,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:41.88,0:11:45.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but Xinjiang's cold, dry climate\Npreserved one
Dialogue: 0,0:11:45.56,0:11:48.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in a 3,000-year-old tomb.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:49.50,0:11:51.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Other grave goods \Nand the human remains
Dialogue: 0,0:11:51.83,0:11:53.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,found in the Yanghai tombs
Dialogue: 0,0:11:53.97,0:11:57.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,confirmed that the bow was made\Nby the Scythians,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:57.61,0:12:02.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a highly sophisticated culture\Nthat originated in southern Russia
Dialogue: 0,0:12:02.38,0:12:04.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and migrated on horseback
Dialogue: 0,0:12:04.16,0:12:07.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,across the length and breadth of Eurasia.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:10.62,0:12:13.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The true birthplace \Nof the recurved composite bow
Dialogue: 0,0:12:13.78,0:12:16.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,remains an archaeological mystery.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:18.41,0:12:21.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But there is no doubt \Nthat 3,000 years ago
Dialogue: 0,0:12:21.50,0:12:25.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,anyone who fought on horseback\Nwould have found it revolutionary.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:26.40,0:12:30.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A bow is as strong as it is long.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:30.24,0:12:33.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It derives its strength from its length.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:34.41,0:12:36.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the recurved bow \Npacks the same length
Dialogue: 0,0:12:36.91,0:12:40.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,into this very short bow
Dialogue: 0,0:12:40.44,0:12:44.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that can be swung over the horse's rear \Nand over the horse's neck.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:46.10,0:12:49.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it was much, much easier \Nto use on horseback.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:50.28,0:12:54.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the recurved bows are\Ntechnologically quite difficult to make.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:55.27,0:12:59.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It took a long time to develop\Nthe craft of bow making to that point.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:02.53,0:13:07.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The recurve all these sinewy bends\N— reflex and deflex —
Dialogue: 0,0:13:07.10,0:13:09.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that gives it in-built spring.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:09.63,0:13:12.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But that can only be created\Nwith composite materials.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:12.62,0:13:16.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What we mean by that is\Nit's made of a number of materials.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:16.04,0:13:18.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The heart of it is wood, usually beech.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:18.34,0:13:22.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then you have horn,\Nhorn from a water buffalo,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:22.19,0:13:26.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then sinew, the tendons of an animal.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:26.50,0:13:29.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That, when you bash it,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:29.36,0:13:32.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can tease apart\Nand get these very fine fibers,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:32.65,0:13:36.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,fibers with tremendous tensile strength.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:36.99,0:13:39.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That has elasticity and spring,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:39.78,0:13:42.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it stops the bow bursting apart.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:42.10,0:13:46.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These are all materials that enhance\Nthe power, the spring of the bow.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:48.48,0:13:52.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But only if bow makers\Ncould solve a very big problem.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:54.87,0:13:57.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How to keep such a powerful bow
Dialogue: 0,0:13:57.37,0:13:59.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made from so many different materials
Dialogue: 0,0:13:59.64,0:14:02.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from breaking up when its own power\Nwas pulling it apart?
Dialogue: 0,0:14:07.50,0:14:10.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Somewhere in Eurasia, sometime long ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:10.85,0:14:14.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some unknown genius discovered the answer.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:15.81,0:14:20.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is the swim bladder of a sturgeon\N— a fish from the Black Sea.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:20.08,0:14:24.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if you start to break these up \Nthen put it in hot water,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:24.45,0:14:27.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you get this wonderful, viscous glue.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:27.45,0:14:32.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This simple idea of making a glue\Nout of a swim bladder of a fish
Dialogue: 0,0:14:32.71,0:14:37.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was a technological breakthrough\Nof immense consequences.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:37.89,0:14:41.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It is what enabled\Nthe composite bow to exist.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:42.05,0:14:46.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in turn the composite bow\Nwas a military revolution
Dialogue: 0,0:14:46.46,0:14:49.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of far-reaching consequences.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:51.69,0:14:56.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The composite recurved bow\Ngave birth to a new kind of warrior
Dialogue: 0,0:14:57.14,0:14:59.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the horse archer.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:59.22,0:15:01.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The horse archer was able\Nto shoot from the saddle
Dialogue: 0,0:15:01.87,0:15:05.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in part because of the new technology\Nof the composite bow.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:06.17,0:15:08.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were short, compact bows,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:08.91,0:15:11.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that meant that you \Ncan shoot them from horseback.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:12.02,0:15:14.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You see I can cross\Nto the other side of the horse,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:14.45,0:15:15.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I can turn and shoot behind.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:15.89,0:15:18.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's much more suitable\Nfor shooting on horseback.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:21.78,0:15:24.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Everyone who fought with Eurasian nomads,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:24.59,0:15:26.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,whether as enemy or friend,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:26.74,0:15:29.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,wanted a recurved composite bow.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:29.66,0:15:31.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the early first millennium BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:31.90,0:15:35.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it was in use from east Asia\Nto eastern Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:40.00,0:15:44.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A recurved bow gave a horse archer\Nunprecedented killing power.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:48.48,0:15:50.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it didn't make him a cavalryman.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:53.18,0:15:57.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Before horse archers could fight\Nas an effective military force,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:58.04,0:16:01.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they needed a large supply\Nof identical arrows.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:04.06,0:16:06.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that didn't exist.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:09.63,0:16:12.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Arrowheads were a variety \Nof different sizes and weights.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:12.94,0:16:14.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some were made of bone.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:14.79,0:16:16.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some were made out of flint.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:16.85,0:16:18.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some were made out of bronze.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:18.62,0:16:20.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,All of them would be individually made
Dialogue: 0,0:16:20.80,0:16:24.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you had to adjust your shot\Nfor the weight of different arrows.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:24.66,0:16:27.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Also a unit of soldiers \Nwho were firing at the same time
Dialogue: 0,0:16:27.82,0:16:30.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would be firing arrows\Nof slightly different weights
Dialogue: 0,0:16:31.03,0:16:33.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they might go different distances.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:34.40,0:16:37.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of the features of a stone arrowhead\Nis its flattened rear
Dialogue: 0,0:16:38.44,0:16:40.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But how did it connect \Nwith the arrowshaft?
Dialogue: 0,0:16:40.68,0:16:44.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It can only be tied to the shaft\Nby rope or ox tendons.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:44.13,0:16:45.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But what about the disadvantages?
Dialogue: 0,0:16:45.71,0:16:49.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,First, the released arrows \Ntend to change direction easily.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:49.77,0:16:52.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Second, they are likely to fall off,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:57.71,0:16:59.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of the technological innovations
Dialogue: 0,0:16:59.93,0:17:03.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was the invention\Nof the socketed arrowhead.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:04.68,0:17:07.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were made of bronze, usually,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:07.88,0:17:11.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they were made in a mould \Nand cast in a mould,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:12.14,0:17:17.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so that an infinite number \Nof socketed arrowheads of the same weight
Dialogue: 0,0:17:17.34,0:17:19.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could be made from the same mould.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:23.14,0:17:27.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Making socketed projectile points \Nwas actually a big deal.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:30.63,0:17:36.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have to have a mould with a core\Nwhere the socket is going to be
Dialogue: 0,0:17:36.44,0:17:39.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that you can pour molten metal around
Dialogue: 0,0:17:39.38,0:17:42.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so that it's the same thickness \Nall the way around.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:48.38,0:17:51.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Making arrowheads\Nof the same size and weight
Dialogue: 0,0:17:51.46,0:17:55.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was another Central Asian\Ntechnological revolution.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:59.08,0:18:02.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,For the first time, mounted warriors\Ncould unleash
Dialogue: 0,0:18:02.25,0:18:05.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,coordinated arrow attacks \Non their enemies.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:07.68,0:18:10.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,With arrowheads of the same weight,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:10.40,0:18:13.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,every time you drew the bow to shoot
Dialogue: 0,0:18:13.84,0:18:16.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you knew that you were firing an arrow
Dialogue: 0,0:18:16.24,0:18:19.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that was exactly the same weight\Nas the last arrow that you fired,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:19.57,0:18:23.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so you could determine\Nthe range and the distance well.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:24.12,0:18:28.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And also all of the archers \Nthat were firing
Dialogue: 0,0:18:28.69,0:18:32.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were firing arrowheads\Nat the same weight at the same time.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:32.97,0:18:36.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the distance for all of them \Nwould be the same.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:36.74,0:18:39.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,With a socketed arrowhead
Dialogue: 0,0:18:39.71,0:18:44.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can directly insert \Nthe head into the shaft.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:44.62,0:18:46.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It look like this.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:47.45,0:18:50.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So what are the advantages\Nof this type of arrowhead?
Dialogue: 0,0:18:50.45,0:18:52.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Its improvements greatly enhanced
Dialogue: 0,0:18:52.31,0:18:54.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the lethality and efficiency\Nof ancient arrows.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:54.72,0:18:58.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Even in the chaos of war, the shooter \Ncould aim t the target easily.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:58.46,0:19:01.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He wouldn't loose the direction\Nby aiming t the target quickly.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:02.38,0:19:06.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This ivention is a giant leap \Nin the development of human history.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:07.77,0:19:11.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Archaeologists believe that sometime\Nin the second millennium BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:12.37,0:19:15.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,socketed bronze arrowheads\Nbegan spreading east
Dialogue: 0,0:19:15.82,0:19:19.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while the composite \Nrecurved bow spread west.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:20.65,0:19:23.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Sometime around 900 BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:23.00,0:19:25.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,socketed arrowheads and recurved bows
Dialogue: 0,0:19:25.59,0:19:28.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,met in the Tarim Basin area \Nof Central Asia,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:31.07,0:19:35.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,brought together by traders,\Nwarriors, and migrating nomads.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:38.80,0:19:43.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,After about 700 BC, you begin to see\Nthousands and thousands of arrowheads
Dialogue: 0,0:19:43.81,0:19:47.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and dozens of arrowheads\Nin a single quiver in a grave.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:47.59,0:19:50.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's like they're being mass produced.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:52.26,0:19:56.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Bronze socketed arrowheads\Nturned central Asia into an arsenal,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:56.64,0:19:59.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but cavalries still couldn't exist
Dialogue: 0,0:20:00.88,0:20:03.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until warriors could become soldiers.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:08.06,0:20:10.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was really the age of heroic warfare
Dialogue: 0,0:20:10.62,0:20:14.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— individuals going out \Nand doing great deeds by themselves
Dialogue: 0,0:20:14.53,0:20:16.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and attracting glory for their own name.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:17.02,0:20:19.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this is the kind of warfare\Nthat's described
Dialogue: 0,0:20:20.03,0:20:23.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the "Iliad", in the "Odyssey," \Nor in the "Rigveda,"
Dialogue: 0,0:20:23.93,0:20:27.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a religious text that's at the deep roots\Nof modern Hinduism.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:29.20,0:20:32.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What had to change\Nwas a psychological change
Dialogue: 0,0:20:32.50,0:20:35.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the nature of the warrior.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:35.76,0:20:39.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You had to change\Nfrom individuals to units
Dialogue: 0,0:20:39.26,0:20:42.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,working under the command\Nof a commanding general,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:43.15,0:20:46.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who would attack and retreat\Nupon command.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:48.30,0:20:52.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The psychological change \Nfrom the heroic warrior to the soldier,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:53.74,0:20:57.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,probably is a feature of urban warfare.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:57.89,0:21:00.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The armies that were associated
Dialogue: 0,0:21:00.38,0:21:04.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with the great cities \Nof Mesopotamia and Iran.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:06.52,0:21:11.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That psychology had to spread \Nnorthward up into the steppes
Dialogue: 0,0:21:12.17,0:21:16.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and be accepted by warriors\Nin the steppes,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:16.65,0:21:19.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the same area \Nwhere the recurved bows
Dialogue: 0,0:21:19.40,0:21:22.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the socketed arrowheads were crossing.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:24.63,0:21:27.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,While recurved bows were spreading west
Dialogue: 0,0:21:27.24,0:21:29.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and socketed arrowheads\Nwere spreading east,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:29.68,0:21:32.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the concept of military discipline\Nwas spreading north.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:36.46,0:21:38.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Sometime around 900 BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:39.08,0:21:42.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all three combined\Nin the heart of central Asia.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:44.86,0:21:47.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When those three things came together,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:47.17,0:21:51.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,cavalry became a really deadly form\Nof military force.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:55.18,0:21:59.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A force that would severely test\Nthe ancient world's most powerful armies.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:02.32,0:22:03.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,2,000 years ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:03.85,0:22:07.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as the Romans pushed east \Nto expand their empire,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:08.34,0:22:10.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,China was pushing west.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:13.22,0:22:15.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And like the Romans,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:15.09,0:22:18.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Chinese encountered\Na formidable enemy on horseback.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:23.01,0:22:26.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Xiongnu were nomads\Nfrom the Central Asian steppes.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:28.04,0:22:30.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Armed with recurved bows\Nand socketed arrows,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:30.96,0:22:34.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they fought under commanders \Nas a disciplined military force.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:38.25,0:22:41.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They raided Chinese villages
Dialogue: 0,0:22:41.48,0:22:44.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and plundered the growing trade\Nbetween East and West,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:46.30,0:22:48.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and no one could stop them.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:49.74,0:22:55.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Xiongnu was the migraine\Nof the ancient world for the Chinese.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:56.82,0:23:01.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They simply just kept coming\Nand they would not stop.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:04.73,0:23:12.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Xiongnu wanted the finest\Nmaterial goods produced by the Chinese.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:16.12,0:23:18.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That is why they raided.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:23.31,0:23:27.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Imagine you're a villager in China\Nand these men come from nowhere.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:27.06,0:23:29.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They come from over the hill \Nwithout warning,
Dialogue: 0,0:23:29.29,0:23:30.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,tearing into your village.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:30.94,0:23:33.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They shoot the headman, \Nthey shoot your husband.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:33.33,0:23:34.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They chase the women out.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:34.86,0:23:38.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There is no hiding place\Nand there's a flurry of dust and arrows.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:38.44,0:23:41.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They're in and they're out \Nand they take the stuff and they go.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:44.79,0:23:47.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,China sent its military might\Nagainst the Xiongnu.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:49.82,0:23:51.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The famed Terracotta Warriors
Dialogue: 0,0:23:51.72,0:23:54.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,reveal the size and power\Nof Chinese armies.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:56.54,0:23:59.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the Chinese fought on foot\Nand from chariots.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:02.72,0:24:05.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Not effective against hit-and-run cavalry.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:07.03,0:24:12.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A Chinese courtier wrote that the Xiongnu\Nmoved like a flock of birds over the land,
Dialogue: 0,0:24:13.23,0:24:15.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,impossible to control.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:16.42,0:24:20.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Once mounted warfare really\Nbecame deadly and effective,
Dialogue: 0,0:24:20.26,0:24:22.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it became a real problem.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:22.86,0:24:27.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you're a farmer, the nomads know\Nwhere you're going to be all the time.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:27.73,0:24:31.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Your house is in the same place\N12 months of the year,
Dialogue: 0,0:24:31.44,0:24:35.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and when your crops become ripe,\Nyou have to harvest,
Dialogue: 0,0:24:35.55,0:24:39.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the nomads know when that season is.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:40.19,0:24:43.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Whereas when you're trying\Nto strike them back,
Dialogue: 0,0:24:43.17,0:24:45.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's impossible to know\Nwhere they're going to be
Dialogue: 0,0:24:45.80,0:24:47.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or when they're going to be there.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:47.87,0:24:50.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have to search to find them.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:53.19,0:24:58.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,To beat the Xiongnu, the Chinese \Nneeded soldiers who could fight like them.
Dialogue: 0,0:25:01.09,0:25:03.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They needed cavalry.
Dialogue: 0,0:25:06.20,0:25:09.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are manuals of warfare\Nthat were written
Dialogue: 0,0:25:09.37,0:25:12.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to instruct Chinese warriors
Dialogue: 0,0:25:12.64,0:25:16.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on how to counter the tactics\Nand the methods of the Xiongnu.
Dialogue: 0,0:25:17.82,0:25:20.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Those manuals introduced \Nthe idea of cavalry
Dialogue: 0,0:25:20.57,0:25:22.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to the Chinese military.
Dialogue: 0,0:25:23.15,0:25:26.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Chinese military\Nhad not really used cavalry
Dialogue: 0,0:25:26.31,0:25:28.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,before about probably 350 BC.
Dialogue: 0,0:25:30.63,0:25:34.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese military, at first \Nwith some resistance
Dialogue: 0,0:25:34.03,0:25:36.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from the old aristocratic families, said:
Dialogue: 0,0:25:36.87,0:25:39.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Well, my father fought on a chariot,
Dialogue: 0,0:25:39.03,0:25:40.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"and his father fought on a chariot,
Dialogue: 0,0:25:40.89,0:25:44.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"and I'm gonna fight on a chariot\Nin my long robes like my ancestors."
Dialogue: 0,0:25:46.41,0:25:49.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it wasn't long before Chinese warriors
Dialogue: 0,0:25:49.05,0:25:51.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,traded their traditional\Nlong, flowing robes
Dialogue: 0,0:25:52.46,0:25:56.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for shorter tunics that didn't get\Nin the way of fighting on horseback.
Dialogue: 0,0:25:59.16,0:26:05.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Eventually, the practicalities\Nforced them to get rid of their robes,
Dialogue: 0,0:26:05.16,0:26:07.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to put on riding trousers,
Dialogue: 0,0:26:08.01,0:26:10.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to learn to shoot the bow on horseback,
Dialogue: 0,0:26:10.98,0:26:14.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they, too, became \Na mighty horse archer force.
Dialogue: 0,0:26:19.66,0:26:23.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese cavalry became experts\Nat shooting the recurved composite bow,
Dialogue: 0,0:26:25.62,0:26:30.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and a lethal Chinese weapon, the crossbow.
Dialogue: 0,0:26:34.13,0:26:36.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,While its cavalry trained,
Dialogue: 0,0:26:36.47,0:26:41.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,China agreed to Xiongnu demands\Nfor payments of money and silk
Dialogue: 0,0:26:42.34,0:26:45.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until the year 133 BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:26:46.10,0:26:49.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when Emperor Han Wudi refused to pay.
Dialogue: 0,0:26:53.22,0:26:55.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And sent his army to attack the Xiongnu.
Dialogue: 0,0:27:30.95,0:27:33.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese cavalry defeated the nomads.
Dialogue: 0,0:27:37.30,0:27:40.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And China seized\Nnew territories in the steppes,
Dialogue: 0,0:27:42.93,0:27:46.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,pacifying trade routes \Nand opening new horizons.
Dialogue: 0,0:27:52.03,0:27:55.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,On one hand, \Nwe have this perpetual conflict
Dialogue: 0,0:27:55.12,0:27:59.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— in Chinese culture would be\Nthe Xiongn and the Han Chinese
Dialogue: 0,0:28:00.38,0:28:03.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that created incessant warfare.
Dialogue: 0,0:28:05.39,0:28:08.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,On the other hand, it is this conflict
Dialogue: 0,0:28:08.57,0:28:11.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that demolished physical boundaries.
Dialogue: 0,0:28:12.100,0:28:17.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Even territory boundaries \Nwere constantly being pushed farther,
Dialogue: 0,0:28:17.15,0:28:20.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,pushed back between the two forces.
Dialogue: 0,0:28:20.55,0:28:26.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This was a stimulus for exchanges,
Dialogue: 0,0:28:26.75,0:28:28.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for political changes,
Dialogue: 0,0:28:28.88,0:28:32.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for new ideas, for artistic traditions.
Dialogue: 0,0:28:36.06,0:28:38.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was also a new era for the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,0:28:40.49,0:28:43.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A fortune in Roman gold \Ntraveled east
Dialogue: 0,0:28:43.68,0:28:46.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in exchange for Chinese silks.
Dialogue: 0,0:28:51.40,0:28:53.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the Central Asian kingdom of Kushan
Dialogue: 0,0:28:54.00,0:28:57.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made its own fortune \Nselling another luxury to China:
Dialogue: 0,0:28:59.56,0:29:00.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,jade.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:03.92,0:29:06.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Silk Road caravans passed \Nthrough this border station
Dialogue: 0,0:29:06.61,0:29:08.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on China's western frontier.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:10.84,0:29:13.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So many of them carried Kushan jade
Dialogue: 0,0:29:13.43,0:29:16.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that this station became known \Nas the Jade Gate.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:21.86,0:29:25.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese aristocrats\Ncoveted jade for its beauty
Dialogue: 0,0:29:25.49,0:29:27.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and something more.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:30.03,0:29:33.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They believed that jade \Nwould keep them alive forever.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:36.79,0:29:39.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The ruling elite commissioned \Njade burial suits
Dialogue: 0,0:29:39.56,0:29:42.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to preserve their bodies in the grave.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:45.62,0:29:48.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They believed that, upon death,
Dialogue: 0,0:29:48.76,0:29:51.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all the orifices should be plugged in
Dialogue: 0,0:29:51.84,0:29:56.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to preserve the spirit inside the person.
Dialogue: 0,0:29:56.97,0:30:00.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this notion of jade
Dialogue: 0,0:30:00.35,0:30:05.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as a material with protective power\Nin the afterlife,
Dialogue: 0,0:30:05.37,0:30:08.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is further enhanced by the fact
Dialogue: 0,0:30:08.35,0:30:11.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they built an armor
Dialogue: 0,0:30:11.06,0:30:16.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made of thousands\Nof pieces of jade.
Dialogue: 0,0:30:17.92,0:30:20.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And of course, if you're the emperor,
Dialogue: 0,0:30:20.12,0:30:25.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,your jade armor would be made\Nfrom the finest jade
Dialogue: 0,0:30:26.100,0:30:29.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from the western regions.
Dialogue: 0,0:30:30.45,0:30:33.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,During the Roman empire,\NSilk Road trade flourished
Dialogue: 0,0:30:33.57,0:30:36.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as Chinese, Persian, and Kushan armies
Dialogue: 0,0:30:36.53,0:30:39.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,kept the trade routes open across Eurasia.
Dialogue: 0,0:30:46.74,0:30:48.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,China had leveled the battlefield
Dialogue: 0,0:30:48.63,0:30:51.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with nomad raiders from the steppes.
Dialogue: 0,0:30:57.49,0:30:59.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But Central Asian horse archers
Dialogue: 0,0:30:59.76,0:31:02.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were about to carve\Ntheir names on History.
Dialogue: 0,0:31:04.45,0:31:08.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the 4th century CE., Europe was invaded\Nby a Central Asian people
Dialogue: 0,0:31:09.04,0:31:12.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,whose name still evokes barbaric cruelty.
Dialogue: 0,0:31:18.66,0:31:22.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Huns, who fought their way West,\Nall the way to Rome.
Dialogue: 0,0:31:32.71,0:31:35.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,European peoples\Nlike the Goths and Visigoths
Dialogue: 0,0:31:35.27,0:31:37.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— the so-called barbarians —
Dialogue: 0,0:31:37.71,0:31:39.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,fled before their onslaught,
Dialogue: 0,0:31:39.44,0:31:41.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and sought refuge in Roman territory.
Dialogue: 0,0:31:43.68,0:31:46.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When the Huns withdrew\Nfrom the Roman world,
Dialogue: 0,0:31:46.73,0:31:49.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,those barbarian refugees stayed.
Dialogue: 0,0:31:55.45,0:31:58.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the rest is History.
Dialogue: 0,0:32:02.39,0:32:05.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The western Roman empire \Nwas plunged into chaos
Dialogue: 0,0:32:07.77,0:32:10.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as barbarian tribes, \Ndissatisfied with their lot,
Dialogue: 0,0:32:10.68,0:32:13.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,rebelled against Roman authority,
Dialogue: 0,0:32:14.14,0:32:17.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and weak Roman emperors \Nfailed to crush them.
Dialogue: 0,0:32:21.74,0:32:26.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As Rome declined, migrating \Nhorse archers, called the Avars,
Dialogue: 0,0:32:26.21,0:32:30.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,carved their own country \Nout of eastern Europe,
Dialogue: 0,0:32:30.44,0:32:33.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,bringing with them \Nanother Asian military innovation:
Dialogue: 0,0:32:36.74,0:32:38.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the stirrup.
Dialogue: 0,0:32:41.76,0:32:44.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This Chinese statue \Nfrom the fourth century CE,
Dialogue: 0,0:32:44.78,0:32:48.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is the earliest known\Ndepiction of stirrups.
Dialogue: 0,0:32:52.57,0:32:54.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some 300 years later,
Dialogue: 0,0:32:54.79,0:32:57.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an Avar horseman\Nwas riding with these stirrups
Dialogue: 0,0:32:57.26,0:32:59.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,across Hungary.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:05.43,0:33:07.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the eighth century CE,
Dialogue: 0,0:33:07.29,0:33:11.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the stirrup had spread\Nfrom one end of Eurasia to the other
Dialogue: 0,0:33:11.83,0:33:14.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and mounted warfare\Nwas entering a new era.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:18.08,0:33:19.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The importance of the stirrup
Dialogue: 0,0:33:19.99,0:33:24.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,relates to what kinds of weapons\Ncan you use from horseback,
Dialogue: 0,0:33:24.20,0:33:28.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it made it possible to use \Ncertain kinds of weapons from horseback
Dialogue: 0,0:33:28.68,0:33:31.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that you couldn't use without stirrups.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:31.41,0:33:33.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Those weapons are the long sabre.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:34.23,0:33:37.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have to lean over and absorb shock,
Dialogue: 0,0:33:38.06,0:33:40.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if you're going to use\Na long sabre in battle.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:40.70,0:33:44.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the stirrups allow the rider \Nto absorb the shock of contact
Dialogue: 0,0:33:44.100,0:33:47.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with a stationary target.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:47.79,0:33:50.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The other big weapon \Nthat was possible with stirrups
Dialogue: 0,0:33:50.42,0:33:54.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was a seated lance held under the arm.
Dialogue: 0,0:33:54.35,0:33:58.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You could stab somebody with the lance\Nand then remove it,
Dialogue: 0,0:33:58.96,0:34:01.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,riding past them without stirrups.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:02.52,0:34:07.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But if you seated it under your arm\Nand used the lance as a shock weapon,
Dialogue: 0,0:34:07.81,0:34:10.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it would knock you\Noff the back of the horse
Dialogue: 0,0:34:10.47,0:34:12.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if you didn't have stirrups.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:12.44,0:34:16.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So stirrups made it possible to use\Nlong swords and lances
Dialogue: 0,0:34:16.81,0:34:19.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as shock weapons \Nagainst stationary targets
Dialogue: 0,0:34:19.61,0:34:21.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and keep your seat.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:21.94,0:34:27.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And of course that made it possible\Nto have really heavy mounted warriors.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:28.09,0:34:31.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, the rider becomes \Na unit with the horse.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:32.24,0:34:35.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He's so anchored with his stirrups,\Nanchored with this,
Dialogue: 0,0:34:35.30,0:34:37.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then with his long lance
Dialogue: 0,0:34:37.58,0:34:41.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,he becomes a single projectile unit.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:43.32,0:34:48.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Man, horse, saddle, lance, \Nall locked together for the impact charge.
Dialogue: 0,0:34:52.76,0:34:55.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This was the age of the medieval knight.
Dialogue: 0,0:35:01.11,0:35:02.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A medieval knight's power
Dialogue: 0,0:35:02.97,0:35:06.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,came from combining the Asian stirrup\Nand the ancient shock tactics
Dialogue: 0,0:35:06.79,0:35:10.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the Persian cataphract\Nwith a European invention:
Dialogue: 0,0:35:11.43,0:35:13.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,articulated plate armor.
Dialogue: 0,0:35:15.93,0:35:19.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Strong enough to protect the wearer \Nfrom sword and lance thrusts
Dialogue: 0,0:35:20.76,0:35:24.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while light enough to allow him \Nto move freely on horseback
Dialogue: 0,0:35:24.99,0:35:26.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and on foot.
Dialogue: 0,0:35:29.52,0:35:33.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Heavy cavalry had never been\Na more potent weapon of war.
Dialogue: 0,0:35:35.72,0:35:38.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Medieval mounted warfare \Ncould be warfare
Dialogue: 0,0:35:38.98,0:35:42.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that generated\Na lot of force on the rider,
Dialogue: 0,0:35:43.09,0:35:45.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a high impact warfare.
Dialogue: 0,0:35:46.78,0:35:49.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In that case, the mounted warrior\Nis being used
Dialogue: 0,0:35:49.58,0:35:53.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,really as a shock weapon\Nto strike the enemy.
Dialogue: 0,0:36:00.26,0:36:03.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But even Europe's \Nformidable mounted knights
Dialogue: 0,0:36:03.24,0:36:06.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would be outfought\Nby Central Asian cavalry
Dialogue: 0,0:36:08.86,0:36:12.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that burst out of the steppes \Nand changed the world.
Dialogue: 0,0:36:16.82,0:36:21.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The largest conquest empire\Nthat the Earth has ever seen
Dialogue: 0,0:36:23.65,0:36:27.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was created by pastoral nomads\Nfrom Central Asia.
Dialogue: 0,0:36:35.96,0:36:37.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the 13th century,
Dialogue: 0,0:36:37.93,0:36:40.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Mongols conquered \Nas far West as Poland
Dialogue: 0,0:36:40.66,0:36:43.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and as far East as the Sea of Japan.
Dialogue: 0,0:36:47.98,0:36:52.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Mongol armies combined the devastating\Nshock tactics of horse archers
Dialogue: 0,0:36:52.26,0:36:55.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with a highly sophisticated\Nmilitary organization.
Dialogue: 0,0:36:57.80,0:37:02.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They could gather quickly\Nand march to distant battlefields.
Dialogue: 0,0:37:04.69,0:37:08.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Then the cavalry could reach\Nthe enemy's battlefield
Dialogue: 0,0:37:08.16,0:37:11.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,before they set up defenses
Dialogue: 0,0:37:11.16,0:37:16.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which could deter their enemy\Npsychologically and strategically.
Dialogue: 0,0:37:16.86,0:37:21.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It is said that the cavalry came suddenly
Dialogue: 0,0:37:21.54,0:37:25.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like something falling fro the sky.
Dialogue: 0,0:37:25.52,0:37:29.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and disappeared quickly
Dialogue: 0,0:37:29.52,0:37:32.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,leaving no trace at all.
Dialogue: 0,0:37:32.72,0:37:35.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Western, especially European historians,
Dialogue: 0,0:37:35.66,0:37:41.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,wrote that the Mongols appeared \Nfar away like several spots
Dialogue: 0,0:37:41.51,0:37:46.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but would suddenly gather\Nbefore you, like dark clouds.
Dialogue: 0,0:37:46.31,0:37:50.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Unexpected attack was the core
Dialogue: 0,0:37:56.47,0:38:00.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Mongols have gone down\Nin History as bloodthirsty killers,
Dialogue: 0,0:38:00.90,0:38:04.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they were also sophisticated,\Nopen-minded,
Dialogue: 0,0:38:04.36,0:38:06.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,often generous conquerors.
Dialogue: 0,0:38:08.67,0:38:11.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They pacified the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,0:38:16.78,0:38:18.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Trade between West and East
Dialogue: 0,0:38:18.78,0:38:21.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,flourished under \Nthis Mongol-enforced peace,
Dialogue: 0,0:38:21.58,0:38:23.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Pax Mongolica.
Dialogue: 0,0:38:26.38,0:38:29.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Before the age of Pax Mongolica,
Dialogue: 0,0:38:29.13,0:38:33.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,banditry was a very serious\Nproblem for traders,
Dialogue: 0,0:38:33.58,0:38:36.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for caravans, along the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,0:38:37.09,0:38:40.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The reputation of Genghis Khan\Nand his descendants
Dialogue: 0,0:38:41.43,0:38:45.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,created peace and safe passage\Nalong the Silk Road
Dialogue: 0,0:38:45.87,0:38:53.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because bandits were so afraid\Nof the Mongol soldiers.
Dialogue: 0,0:38:54.24,0:38:56.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Pax Mongolica,
Dialogue: 0,0:38:57.22,0:39:05.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the control of trade and exchange
Dialogue: 0,0:39:05.50,0:39:08.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that was made possible under the Mongols
Dialogue: 0,0:39:08.45,0:39:12.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,connected China with Europe\Nand with the Near East
Dialogue: 0,0:39:12.40,0:39:16.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in a really close way \Nfor the first time in world History
Dialogue: 0,0:39:16.59,0:39:19.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that had a profound effect
Dialogue: 0,0:39:19.49,0:39:22.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on the development\Nof European civilization.
Dialogue: 0,0:39:24.36,0:39:26.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Protected by the Pax Mongolica,
Dialogue: 0,0:39:26.48,0:39:30.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and anxious for good relations \Nwith the Mongol empire,
Dialogue: 0,0:39:30.24,0:39:34.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Europeans began traveling East \Nas never before.
Dialogue: 0,0:39:36.24,0:39:38.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Merchants, missionaries, and diplomats
Dialogue: 0,0:39:38.82,0:39:41.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,flowed East along the trade routes,
Dialogue: 0,0:39:43.39,0:39:46.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,bringing back popular Asian goods\Nlike cloth and spices
Dialogue: 0,0:39:48.56,0:39:51.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and tales of the wealth \Nand wonders of the East,
Dialogue: 0,0:39:52.14,0:39:56.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some true, some fabulous, \Nbut all fascinating.
Dialogue: 0,0:39:57.91,0:39:59.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,From Europe to China,
Dialogue: 0,0:39:59.58,0:40:03.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Silk Road trade spread \Nnew knowledge of far-away lands.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:04.57,0:40:09.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Silk Road made human beings realize
Dialogue: 0,0:40:09.23,0:40:12.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that there are other people out there,
Dialogue: 0,0:40:12.12,0:40:15.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it opened the eyes \Nof the East and the West.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:19.67,0:40:23.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Italian cities of Venice and Genoa\Nreaped huge rewards.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:27.05,0:40:29.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Their merchants traveled safely\Nthroughout Eurasia
Dialogue: 0,0:40:31.68,0:40:34.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and founded trading posts on the Black Sea
Dialogue: 0,0:40:34.14,0:40:37.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to receive and pass on Silk Road goods.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:38.80,0:40:42.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Their Silk Road profits funded\Nmagnificent art and architecture.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:45.40,0:40:49.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But their competition frequently\Nplunged them into war with one another.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:51.64,0:40:56.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In one of these wars, Genoa captured\Na prosperous Venetian merchant
Dialogue: 0,0:40:56.19,0:40:58.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,named Marco Polo.
Dialogue: 0,0:40:59.09,0:41:02.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Imprisoned by the Genoese, \NPolo dictated the story
Dialogue: 0,0:41:02.82,0:41:06.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of his Silk Road journey to China\Nto a fellow prisoner.
Dialogue: 0,0:41:09.17,0:41:13.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Today, experts debate whether\NMarco Polo really visited China
Dialogue: 0,0:41:14.31,0:41:16.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or was simply retelling stories
Dialogue: 0,0:41:16.92,0:41:19.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,he heard from fellow Silk Road travelers.
Dialogue: 0,0:41:23.67,0:41:26.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But there's no debate \Nthat "The Travels of Marco Polo"
Dialogue: 0,0:41:27.05,0:41:31.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was one of the most influential books\Nin all of human History.
Dialogue: 0,0:41:32.04,0:41:34.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It tantalized Europe with tales
Dialogue: 0,0:41:34.24,0:41:37.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of China's immense wealth \Nand advanced civilization.
Dialogue: 0,0:41:45.19,0:41:49.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And years before Marco Polo was telling\Nthose tales in a Genoese prison,
Dialogue: 0,0:41:52.72,0:41:57.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a Chinese invention was making\Nits way across Eurasia to the West.
Dialogue: 0,0:42:02.57,0:42:05.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Something created centuries earlier
Dialogue: 0,0:42:05.10,0:42:08.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when an experiment ended very badly.
Dialogue: 0,0:42:19.46,0:42:23.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Ancient Chinese alchemists\Nprepared potions of lead or mercury
Dialogue: 0,0:42:23.76,0:42:26.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for their aristocratic patrons
Dialogue: 0,0:42:26.06,0:42:29.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who believed that drinking these metals\Nwould help them live forever.
Dialogue: 0,0:42:32.75,0:42:36.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Instead, those concoctions killed them \Nor made them insane.
Dialogue: 0,0:42:38.80,0:42:41.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Another deadly combination was sulfur
Dialogue: 0,0:42:41.68,0:42:45.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,heated with an organic nitrate\Nfound in soil throughout China,
Dialogue: 0,0:42:48.04,0:42:50.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,known today as saltpeter.
Dialogue: 0,0:42:52.95,0:42:55.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When alchemists experimented\Nwith this formula,
Dialogue: 0,0:42:55.52,0:42:57.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it burst into flame,
Dialogue: 0,0:42:57.68,0:42:59.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,injuring the alchemists,
Dialogue: 0,0:42:59.82,0:43:01.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Explosion)
Dialogue: 0,0:43:01.26,0:43:03.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and burning down their laboratory.
Dialogue: 0,0:43:05.94,0:43:10.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,From that disaster was born \Na chemical mixture like none other.
Dialogue: 0,0:43:15.04,0:43:18.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It may have failed\Nas an elixir of immortality,
Dialogue: 0,0:43:18.19,0:43:22.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it would prove to be\Na potent agent of death.
Dialogue: 0,0:43:25.27,0:43:29.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This Chinese Buddhist scroll \Ndating from around 950 CE,
Dialogue: 0,0:43:29.43,0:43:32.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,depicts demons surrounding\Na seated Buddha.
Dialogue: 0,0:43:34.26,0:43:39.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One demon holds what the Chinese called\Na "huo quiang", or fire lance.
Dialogue: 0,0:43:42.35,0:43:44.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's the earliest known image of a weapon
Dialogue: 0,0:43:44.91,0:43:48.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,powered by that deadly mixture \Nof saltpeter and sulfur.
Dialogue: 0,0:43:51.52,0:43:55.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Known to history as gunpowder.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:01.09,0:44:03.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the early 13th century,
Dialogue: 0,0:44:03.54,0:44:06.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Mongols attacked China's Jin Dynasty.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:07.20,0:44:11.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Jin Dynasty's army fought back \Nwith exploding gunpowder bombs.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:15.76,0:44:18.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But as the Mongols conquered \Nmore and more of China,
Dialogue: 0,0:44:18.86,0:44:22.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Han Chinese artillerymen\Njoined their armies
Dialogue: 0,0:44:22.42,0:44:26.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and marched West, bringing\Ntheir gunpowder weapons with them.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:29.14,0:44:32.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Mongols attacked \NRussian and Polish cities
Dialogue: 0,0:44:32.29,0:44:34.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with exploding fire bombs.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:36.12,0:44:39.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And Europeans found out the hard way \Nwhat gunpowder could do.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:44.40,0:44:46.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the end of the 13th century,
Dialogue: 0,0:44:46.76,0:44:49.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the formula for gunpowder \Nwas known as far West as England,
Dialogue: 0,0:44:51.75,0:44:55.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and Europeans were inventing \Ntheir own versions of the new weapons.
Dialogue: 0,0:44:59.87,0:45:04.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It wasn't long before this Chinese \Ninvention changed European history.
Dialogue: 0,0:45:08.38,0:45:11.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,On 26th August, 1346,
Dialogue: 0,0:45:11.42,0:45:14.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,near the village of Crecy\Nin northern France,
Dialogue: 0,0:45:14.69,0:45:18.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the armies of France and England\Nprepared to fight.
Dialogue: 0,0:45:26.94,0:45:30.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Mounted on their war steeds, \Nencased in their armor,
Dialogue: 0,0:45:30.58,0:45:33.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the flower of French nobility \Nformed their battle line,
Dialogue: 0,0:45:42.73,0:45:46.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while the English deployed \Na very different force.
Dialogue: 0,0:45:50.20,0:45:52.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thousands of expert archers.
Dialogue: 0,0:45:59.97,0:46:04.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The French sent their higher Genoese\Ncrossbowmen to attack the English
Dialogue: 0,0:46:04.58,0:46:07.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,before French knights annihilated them.
Dialogue: 0,0:46:14.81,0:46:17.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the English king, Edward III,
Dialogue: 0,0:46:17.43,0:46:20.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,had spent years training his longbow men.
Dialogue: 0,0:46:24.52,0:46:27.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And all that training\Nwas about to pay off.
Dialogue: 0,0:46:41.43,0:46:46.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Nothing like this had been seen\Non a western battlefield up to this time.
Dialogue: 0,0:46:46.68,0:46:51.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The first time that a volley of arrows \Nwas unleashed by the archers at Crecy
Dialogue: 0,0:46:52.21,0:46:55.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would have represented \Nsomething completely new
Dialogue: 0,0:46:55.37,0:46:58.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to many of those\Nin the French army watching it.
Dialogue: 0,0:46:58.55,0:47:01.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A cloud of arrows descending towards them.
Dialogue: 0,0:47:02.44,0:47:04.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It would have been frightening,
Dialogue: 0,0:47:04.73,0:47:07.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and of course the effect\Nwas almost immediate.
Dialogue: 0,0:47:11.66,0:47:15.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Showered by English arrows, \Nthe Genoese turned and ran,
Dialogue: 0,0:47:17.32,0:47:19.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and according to medieval \Naccounts of the battle,
Dialogue: 0,0:47:19.92,0:47:23.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were also panicked \Nby another English weapon.
Dialogue: 0,0:47:32.03,0:47:35.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Giovanni Villani, writing\Nvery soon after the battle,
Dialogue: 0,0:47:35.21,0:47:39.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,says in his chronicle that \Nso loud and intimidating
Dialogue: 0,0:47:39.69,0:47:42.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was the noise created by the guns
Dialogue: 0,0:47:42.36,0:47:45.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they thought God was thundering.
Dialogue: 0,0:47:48.100,0:47:51.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"The English guns cast\Niron balls by means of fire.
Dialogue: 0,0:47:52.69,0:47:54.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"They made a noise like thunder
Dialogue: 0,0:47:55.02,0:47:57.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"and caused much loss\Nin men and horses."
Dialogue: 0,0:48:04.84,0:48:07.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Noise like that would have been \Nunprecedented
Dialogue: 0,0:48:07.41,0:48:09.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to the soldiers on the battlefield.
Dialogue: 0,0:48:10.54,0:48:13.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Nothing in their lives\Ncould have prepared them
Dialogue: 0,0:48:13.67,0:48:15.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for a a bang of that size
Dialogue: 0,0:48:15.46,0:48:19.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and accompanied by smoke\Nand acrid sulfur smell,
Dialogue: 0,0:48:19.66,0:48:22.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which would hang in the air.
Dialogue: 0,0:48:22.41,0:48:25.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The impact of which, of course,\Nthey couldn't see
Dialogue: 0,0:48:25.06,0:48:27.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until men around them dropped.
Dialogue: 0,0:48:29.09,0:48:32.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Not even professional soldiers \Nlike the Genoese
Dialogue: 0,0:48:32.30,0:48:36.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would have experienced anything \Nlike this before in their lives.
Dialogue: 0,0:48:36.19,0:48:38.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That would have been terrifying,
Dialogue: 0,0:48:38.81,0:48:41.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it's no wonder\Nthat they scattered and ran.
Dialogue: 0,0:48:44.02,0:48:49.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They turned and fled into the face\Nof the oncoming French cavalry charge.
Dialogue: 0,0:48:50.10,0:48:53.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The French cavalry were now\Ncoming onto the battlefield
Dialogue: 0,0:48:53.20,0:48:55.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they were appalled
Dialogue: 0,0:48:55.31,0:48:59.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at these people they'd hired\Nrunning away.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:01.27,0:49:03.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they cursed them\Nand they rode into them,
Dialogue: 0,0:49:03.85,0:49:06.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and as many Genoese fell to French hooves
Dialogue: 0,0:49:06.72,0:49:09.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as they did to English \Narrows and gunshots.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:11.81,0:49:14.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the French knights, \Nall 12,000 of them,
Dialogue: 0,0:49:14.22,0:49:16.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,double the size of the English army,
Dialogue: 0,0:49:16.10,0:49:18.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they came charging down onto the English.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:21.91,0:49:26.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they, too, fell to the English arrows\Nand the English gunshot,
Dialogue: 0,0:49:27.62,0:49:30.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they came again and again and again.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:30.50,0:49:32.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,15, 16 times, they came.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:34.71,0:49:36.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And their horses were ripped to shreds
Dialogue: 0,0:49:36.72,0:49:39.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the men were thrown from their horses.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:39.20,0:49:40.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And those that weren't thrown,
Dialogue: 0,0:49:40.65,0:49:43.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they had the opportunity\Nthat the dagger men rushed in
Dialogue: 0,0:49:43.22,0:49:45.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they brought these knights down.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:50.79,0:49:54.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This was a moment in History\Nwhere the world changed.
Dialogue: 0,0:49:54.79,0:49:58.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It spelled the beginning of the end \Nfor the medieval knight.
Dialogue: 0,0:50:01.77,0:50:04.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Battle of Crecy\Nhas gone down in history
Dialogue: 0,0:50:04.22,0:50:07.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as one of the earliest uses \Nof gunpowder weapons
Dialogue: 0,0:50:07.56,0:50:10.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on a European battlefield.
Dialogue: 0,0:50:17.99,0:50:19.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some 500 years after,
Dialogue: 0,0:50:19.98,0:50:22.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it burned down \Na Chinese alchemist's workshop,
Dialogue: 0,0:50:22.75,0:50:26.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,gunpowder had become \Ndestiny's weapon of choice.
Dialogue: 0,0:50:28.57,0:50:31.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,After Crecy, it was only a matter of time
Dialogue: 0,0:50:31.61,0:50:35.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until the fates of peoples and nations\Nwere decided by the gun.
Dialogue: 0,0:50:40.13,0:50:42.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Within two centuries,
Dialogue: 0,0:50:42.39,0:50:45.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Europeans would use their powerful \Ngunpowder weapons
Dialogue: 0,0:50:45.35,0:50:47.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to dominate the world,
Dialogue: 0,0:50:51.75,0:50:55.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,creating empires that would evolve\Ninto today's global trading culture,
Dialogue: 0,0:50:59.83,0:51:03.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which binds people together\Nby commerce instead of the gun.
Dialogue: 0,0:51:10.02,0:51:13.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But before Europe could embark \Non its empire-building adventure,
Dialogue: 0,0:51:14.80,0:51:16.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,its medieval social order
Dialogue: 0,0:51:16.53,0:51:19.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would be shattered\Nby a catastrophic event.
Dialogue: 0,0:51:21.41,0:51:25.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One that would forge a new Europe\Nin a crucible of horror.
Dialogue: 0,0:51:29.15,0:51:31.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,While guns thundered at Crecy,
Dialogue: 0,0:51:31.64,0:51:34.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,something else was spreading\Nalong the Eurasian trade routes.
Dialogue: 0,0:51:39.61,0:51:43.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Something that would kill\Ntens of millions of Europeans.
Dialogue: 0,0:51:48.51,0:51:51.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,An apocalyptic destruction of human life
Dialogue: 0,0:51:52.35,0:51:55.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that would lay the foundations\Nof the modern world.
Dialogue: 0,0:52:18.10,0:52:20.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At the Battle of Crécy in 1346,
Dialogue: 0,0:52:21.26,0:52:24.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the English won \Nan historic victory over France,
Dialogue: 0,0:52:27.84,0:52:31.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,helped by a Chinese invention\Nthat had traveled to Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:52:40.34,0:52:42.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Gunpowder.
Dialogue: 0,0:53:18.78,0:53:20.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in the same year of 1346,
Dialogue: 0,0:53:21.52,0:53:24.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some 2,000 kilometres east of Crécy,
Dialogue: 0,0:53:25.24,0:53:29.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,another battle was taking place \Non the shores of the Black Sea.
Dialogue: 0,0:53:33.68,0:53:38.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A Mongol army had been laying siege\Nto the Crimean port city of Caffa,
Dialogue: 0,0:53:38.73,0:53:42.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a Silk Road trading post belonging\Nto the Italian city of Genoa.
Dialogue: 0,0:53:45.51,0:53:48.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Mongols were masters \Nof siege warfare.
Dialogue: 0,0:53:51.34,0:53:55.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But Caffa was still holding out\Nafter more than two years.
Dialogue: 0,0:53:58.98,0:54:02.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Suddenly, the Mongol army was decimated.
Dialogue: 0,0:54:02.95,0:54:06.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Not by Caffa's defenders, \Nbut by an unknown disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:54:10.00,0:54:12.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Mongols quickly ended their siege.
Dialogue: 0,0:54:13.12,0:54:14.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But before they left Caffa,
Dialogue: 0,0:54:14.100,0:54:18.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they loaded their siege engines \Nwith the corpses of their dead
Dialogue: 0,0:54:18.33,0:54:21.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and flung them over the city's walls,
Dialogue: 0,0:54:21.48,0:54:25.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,believing that the stench of death\Nwould kill the defenders.
Dialogue: 0,0:54:29.96,0:54:31.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Medieval chronicles say
Dialogue: 0,0:54:31.71,0:54:34.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that Caffa's defenders\Ndid die by the thousands,
Dialogue: 0,0:54:35.11,0:54:38.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but not from the smell of death.
Dialogue: 0,0:54:42.31,0:54:44.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One year later, in 1347,
Dialogue: 0,0:54:44.96,0:54:48.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the same disease that had killed\Nthe Mongols at Caffa
Dialogue: 0,0:54:49.14,0:54:51.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was killing people in Constantinople.
Dialogue: 0,0:54:53.43,0:54:58.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By 1348,it was killing people \Nacross Western Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:02.24,0:55:06.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By 1350, it was killing people\Nas far away as Greenland.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:11.45,0:55:14.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And terrified Europeans\Nhad given it a name.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:16.98,0:55:19.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Black Death.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:20.88,0:55:26.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In just under a decade, \Nfrom 1347 to 1356,
Dialogue: 0,0:55:27.18,0:55:31.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Black Death killed a\Nt least 25 million Europeans.,
Dialogue: 0,0:55:31.51,0:55:34.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one third of Europe's population.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:38.83,0:55:40.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Today, most scholars believe
Dialogue: 0,0:55:40.77,0:55:43.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the Black Death was \Nan outbreak of bubonic plague.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:44.46,0:55:48.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that was transmitted to humans\Nby infected fleas living on rats.
Dialogue: 0,0:55:52.01,0:55:54.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we believe\Nthat it spread across Eurasia
Dialogue: 0,0:55:54.87,0:55:58.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by hitching a ride with armies,\Nships, and caravans
Dialogue: 0,0:55:59.23,0:56:02.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,along trade routes \Nthat were already ancient
Dialogue: 0,0:56:02.36,0:56:05.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by the time of the Black Death.
Dialogue: 0,0:56:07.74,0:56:10.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Micro-organic travelers of all kinds
Dialogue: 0,0:56:10.48,0:56:13.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,have moved across Eurasia\Nfor thousands of years.
Dialogue: 0,0:56:15.21,0:56:19.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A bio-migration that has had \Nas big an impact on history
Dialogue: 0,0:56:19.03,0:56:23.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as the more famous exchanges\Nof new technologies and luxury goods.
Dialogue: 0,0:56:24.80,0:56:27.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as a recent discovery shows,
Dialogue: 0,0:56:27.36,0:56:30.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,tiny living things \Nmoving along the Silk Road
Dialogue: 0,0:56:30.44,0:56:33.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,brought life as well as death.
Dialogue: 0,0:56:34.58,0:56:36.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We were putting together some new methods
Dialogue: 0,0:56:37.06,0:56:39.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of looking for early agriculture,
Dialogue: 0,0:56:39.25,0:56:42.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and for that we needed to do a survey
Dialogue: 0,0:56:42.26,0:56:45.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of all the finds of early crops in Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:56:47.16,0:56:49.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When you looked at a map of all of Europe,
Dialogue: 0,0:56:49.23,0:56:52.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then you could see\Nthere were these Chinese crops
Dialogue: 0,0:56:52.14,0:56:55.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in small numbers very early on in Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:56:57.02,0:57:00.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Very early on" was around 2,000 BC,
Dialogue: 0,0:57:02.48,0:57:05.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when a Chinese grain\Ncalled broomcorn millet
Dialogue: 0,0:57:05.33,0:57:09.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,appears in the Eastern European\Narchaeological record.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:10.06,0:57:13.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The actual crop itself\Nwill decay or be eaten,
Dialogue: 0,0:57:14.17,0:57:16.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but rather fortunately,
Dialogue: 0,0:57:16.22,0:57:19.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if it's cooked and over-burnt,\Nit turns to carbon.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:19.68,0:57:23.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That will stay in the archaeological\Nrecord for a long time.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:27.37,0:57:29.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the Chinese province of inner Mongolia,
Dialogue: 0,0:57:30.44,0:57:33.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,archaeologists are studying\Nthe origins of broomcorn millet,
Dialogue: 0,0:57:34.63,0:57:37.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one of the world's oldest domestic crops.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:40.35,0:57:44.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We are looking at a broomcorn millet field\Nof almost 16 acres
Dialogue: 0,0:57:44.54,0:57:47.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The cultivation of broomcorn millet\Nin this place
Dialogue: 0,0:57:47.40,0:57:49.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,dates back to nearly 8000 years ago.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:49.95,0:57:53.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's the earliest area of human-cultivated\Nbroomcorn millet in the world.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:53.90,0:57:56.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,After broomcorn millet's birth\Nin this place,
Dialogue: 0,0:57:56.17,0:57:58.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it spread to the West from the East.
Dialogue: 0,0:57:58.05,0:58:00.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It spread to Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:01.50,0:58:04.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Since it originated from the East\Nand then spread to Europe,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:04.31,0:58:06.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it can be regarded \Nas an important contribution
Dialogue: 0,0:58:06.64,0:58:09.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of our Eastern civilization\Nto the Western counterpart.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:11.100,0:58:14.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it isn't clear just how and why
Dialogue: 0,0:58:15.14,0:58:19.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,broomcorn millet travelled thousands\Nof kilometres across Eurasia,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:19.81,0:58:22.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,through some of the world's\Nharshest environments,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:22.92,0:58:25.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all the way to Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:27.18,0:58:31.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Millet's long journey may have begun\Nsimply because it travelled so well.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:35.16,0:58:38.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Millets are essentially cereals, \Nbut they're very small.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:39.48,0:58:41.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And because they have very small grains,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:41.65,0:58:43.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they're hardy and they're tough,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:43.30,0:58:45.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they can grow quite fast.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:45.45,0:58:47.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Broomcorn millet, at a push,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:47.91,0:58:50.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,can get from seed to seed in 45 days.
Dialogue: 0,0:58:53.22,0:58:55.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can plant a seed in the ground
Dialogue: 0,0:58:55.30,0:58:58.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and 45 days later, \Nin the right conditions,
Dialogue: 0,0:58:58.80,0:59:00.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you may have plants.
Dialogue: 0,0:59:00.86,0:59:02.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's incredibly fast.
Dialogue: 0,0:59:02.72,0:59:04.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, if you're moving around parts of Asia,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:05.05,0:59:07.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where, on the one hand, \Nthere's a long winter,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:07.78,0:59:09.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a short growing season,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:09.37,0:59:12.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you can't particularly r\Nely on rainfall,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:12.47,0:59:16.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then something that gets a move on\Nin terms of its growth cycle
Dialogue: 0,0:59:16.12,0:59:18.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is very valuable.
Dialogue: 0,0:59:21.26,0:59:24.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are accounts of communities\Nthat are on horseback
Dialogue: 0,0:59:25.17,0:59:28.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for quite a lot of the time\Nand herding animals and so forth,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:28.50,0:59:32.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but for that short season of the year
Dialogue: 0,0:59:32.31,0:59:33.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that millet grows in,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:33.88,0:59:36.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they can actually \Nsow the millet on horseback,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:36.95,0:59:39.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,trample it in with the horse's feet,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:39.51,0:59:41.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then either leave \Na few teenagers there
Dialogue: 0,0:59:41.60,0:59:44.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to scare the birds off \Nfor a couple of months,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:44.17,0:59:47.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,come back two months later, \Nand harvest the crops.
Dialogue: 0,0:59:51.37,0:59:53.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Millet was a highly mobile grain,
Dialogue: 0,0:59:53.85,0:59:55.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but there wasn't any evidence
Dialogue: 0,0:59:55.71,0:59:58.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of how it might have travelled\Nfrom its home in northern China.
Dialogue: 0,1:00:02.17,1:00:08.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Until archaeologists found signs \Nof millet cultivation around 2500 BC
Dialogue: 0,1:00:09.10,1:00:13.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the foothills of the Tian Shan\NMountains in central Asia.
Dialogue: 0,1:00:16.06,1:00:18.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At that point we asked ourselves,
Dialogue: 0,1:00:18.04,1:00:20.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Well, what is it about these foothills?"
Dialogue: 0,1:00:20.30,1:00:22.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You know, "Why the foothills?"
Dialogue: 0,1:00:23.33,1:00:25.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Clearly, it's about water.
Dialogue: 0,1:00:26.63,1:00:29.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If one travels across the centre of Asia,
Dialogue: 0,1:00:29.60,1:00:32.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one realizes why water is a key.
Dialogue: 0,1:00:32.32,1:00:35.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And wherever you are in Asia, \Nit can be very dry, of course.
Dialogue: 0,1:00:36.11,1:00:38.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But if one goes uphill to those foothills,
Dialogue: 0,1:00:38.74,1:00:40.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then one has somewhere
Dialogue: 0,1:00:40.75,1:00:44.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where there will be streams\Nrunning off the mountains and water.
Dialogue: 0,1:00:47.16,1:00:50.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Archaeologists found that around 1,000 BC,
Dialogue: 0,1:00:50.21,1:00:53.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,millet farmers left theTian Shan foothills
Dialogue: 0,1:00:53.75,1:00:56.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and their reliable water supply
Dialogue: 0,1:00:56.29,1:00:59.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and began moving\Ninto much harsher environments.
Dialogue: 0,1:01:00.02,1:01:03.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We can see the confidence of farmers
Dialogue: 0,1:01:03.90,1:01:06.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,spreading out from where\Nthe water is really safe
Dialogue: 0,1:01:07.05,1:01:09.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to areas where you have to know more
Dialogue: 0,1:01:09.65,1:01:13.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about the water and the landscape \Nand the geography,
Dialogue: 0,1:01:13.16,1:01:16.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,both into the steppes to the north\Nand to the desert to the south.
Dialogue: 0,1:01:19.57,1:01:23.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Millet's local migrations\Nmay have linked it with the world.
Dialogue: 0,1:01:24.35,1:01:27.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Migrating millet farmers\Nin search of water
Dialogue: 0,1:01:27.08,1:01:29.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,may have settled near trade routes.
Dialogue: 0,1:01:33.07,1:01:35.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And long-distance travelers\Nwould have chosen routes
Dialogue: 0,1:01:35.66,1:01:38.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,near reliable sources of food and water.
Dialogue: 0,1:01:43.09,1:01:48.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I think very much \Nthose traders are definitely working
Dialogue: 0,1:01:49.08,1:01:51.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,through networks\Nthat are already centuries old.
Dialogue: 0,1:01:53.50,1:01:58.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's at least a millennium\Nbefore you see something crystallizing
Dialogue: 0,1:01:58.73,1:02:01.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that you can start calling the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:04.72,1:02:08.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Another discovery has revealed \Nthat this ancient grain migration
Dialogue: 0,1:02:08.16,1:02:11.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,wasn't only from East to West.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:14.25,1:02:17.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Wheat was transmitted from West to East,
Dialogue: 0,1:02:17.86,1:02:21.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,arrived in China and was accepted\Nas our main staple.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:21.32,1:02:26.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This reflects the transaction\Nbetween Eastern and Western cultures.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:29.53,1:02:32.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Eurasian steppe, acting as a route
Dialogue: 0,1:02:32.44,1:02:35.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for early exchanges between\NEastern and Western cultures.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:35.36,1:02:38.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is the predecessor\Nof the ancient Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:38.74,1:02:41.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Ethnic migration, the fusion of cultures,
Dialogue: 0,1:02:41.75,1:02:44.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the flow of trade\Nare ll embedded in this road.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:46.76,1:02:50.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Trading millet and wheat\Nbetween China and Europe
Dialogue: 0,1:02:50.16,1:02:52.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,may have done much more than feed people.
Dialogue: 0,1:02:54.59,1:02:58.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It may also have enabled\Nprofound social change.
Dialogue: 0,1:03:02.45,1:03:05.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Seeds germinate at one time of year
Dialogue: 0,1:03:05.41,1:03:08.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and are harvested another time of year,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:08.12,1:03:11.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that's kind\Nof hardwired into their biology.
Dialogue: 0,1:03:11.29,1:03:13.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so farming is a one-season activity,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:13.97,1:03:16.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and there are things going on\Nat other times of year.
Dialogue: 0,1:03:16.63,1:03:19.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And during the second millennium BC,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:19.26,1:03:21.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a number of societies are doing something
Dialogue: 0,1:03:21.26,1:03:23.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is quite radically different,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:23.13,1:03:28.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that is putting more\Nthan one season in a single year.
Dialogue: 0,1:03:29.49,1:03:31.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Crops like millet \Nare really useful for that,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:32.01,1:03:35.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in that if you are a western farmer,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:35.28,1:03:37.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with wheat and barley fields
Dialogue: 0,1:03:37.62,1:03:39.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,reaching maturity during the summer,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:39.99,1:03:41.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you think
Dialogue: 0,1:03:41.23,1:03:44.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Right, with the same plot of land,\N"I want to increase production.
Dialogue: 0,1:03:44.70,1:03:48.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"And so, I want another crop\Nafter I've harvested the first crop."
Dialogue: 0,1:03:49.58,1:03:52.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can't do a long season, \Nlarge-grain crop
Dialogue: 0,1:03:52.46,1:03:54.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like wheat and barley again,
Dialogue: 0,1:03:54.53,1:03:57.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so, something that's short and sharp\Nlike millet
Dialogue: 0,1:03:57.17,1:03:59.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can tag on to the end of it
Dialogue: 0,1:03:59.32,1:04:02.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and catch another season \Nbefore the winter's set in.
Dialogue: 0,1:04:05.30,1:04:08.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Interestingly, when you get to China, \Nit's the converse.
Dialogue: 0,1:04:08.61,1:04:11.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have this short season crop\Nalready there,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:11.04,1:04:13.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and by rearranging your life,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:13.32,1:04:17.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can bring a long season crop\Nsuch as wheat and barley in at that stage.
Dialogue: 0,1:04:17.72,1:04:20.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the implications are, \Nwith the same plot of land,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:21.14,1:04:25.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you could basically get \Ntwo harvests rather than one.
Dialogue: 0,1:04:25.37,1:04:28.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, two sets of calories rather than one.
Dialogue: 0,1:04:31.67,1:04:35.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It may release some of the community\Nto not farm at all
Dialogue: 0,1:04:36.02,1:04:40.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and occupy roles within cities,\Nor as craftspeople, or leaders.
Dialogue: 0,1:04:43.15,1:04:45.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If we look at the second millennium BC,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:45.74,1:04:47.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what we certainly see
Dialogue: 0,1:04:47.34,1:04:50.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is at the same time \Nas multi-cropping is there,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:51.24,1:04:54.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then there are a lot of the community,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:54.71,1:04:57.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are not farmers, \Nbut instead metalworkers,
Dialogue: 0,1:04:57.53,1:05:00.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or kings, or priests, or something else.
Dialogue: 0,1:05:00.16,1:05:02.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so what we see evidence of
Dialogue: 0,1:05:02.04,1:05:07.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is multi-cropping allows a non-farming\Nsector within the community.
Dialogue: 0,1:05:09.79,1:05:14.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, what we have is a small, \Nnot very impressive-looking seed,
Dialogue: 0,1:05:14.40,1:05:17.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but because of the way it grows\Nand because of its biology,
Dialogue: 0,1:05:17.81,1:05:20.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it has a massive impact
Dialogue: 0,1:05:20.34,1:05:22.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in changing the productivity
Dialogue: 0,1:05:22.50,1:05:25.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the heartlands of western farming.
Dialogue: 0,1:05:27.64,1:05:30.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, those western farmlands\Ncould, in the same area,
Dialogue: 0,1:05:30.39,1:05:32.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,produce two crops rather than one,
Dialogue: 0,1:05:32.80,1:05:35.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that enabled a whole series of things
Dialogue: 0,1:05:35.40,1:05:38.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we associate \Nwith the word "civilization."
Dialogue: 0,1:05:43.29,1:05:47.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Finding Chinese millet in Europe\Nand European wheat and barley in China
Dialogue: 0,1:05:47.96,1:05:51.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,suggests that long before the Silk Road,
Dialogue: 0,1:05:51.20,1:05:55.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,East and West were introducing \None another to new foods,
Dialogue: 0,1:05:56.28,1:05:58.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that the movement of crops
Dialogue: 0,1:05:58.66,1:06:02.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,may have helped create\Nthe earliest East-West trade routes.
Dialogue: 0,1:06:05.27,1:06:08.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in the deserts of far western China,
Dialogue: 0,1:06:08.07,1:06:10.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,archaeologists\Nhave discovered another way
Dialogue: 0,1:06:10.48,1:06:12.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,living organisms\Ncould travel the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:06:15.22,1:06:18.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is Xuanquanzhi relay station,
Dialogue: 0,1:06:18.16,1:06:21.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an archaeological site \Nnear the town of Dunhuang,
Dialogue: 0,1:06:21.95,1:06:24.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a major stopping point on the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:06:29.01,1:06:31.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,2,000 years ago during the Han dynasty,
Dialogue: 0,1:06:32.02,1:06:36.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Xuanquanzhi was a very busy\Nand very cosmopolitan place.
Dialogue: 0,1:06:39.54,1:06:43.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,According to records \Nwritten on bamboo and wood
Dialogue: 0,1:06:43.34,1:06:45.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,unearthed from Xuanquanzhi
Dialogue: 0,1:06:45.82,1:06:49.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Xuanquanzhi was not only serving\Nas a relay station,
Dialogue: 0,1:06:49.31,1:06:52.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but also as a place to receive \Ncaravans and government officials.
Dialogue: 0,1:06:52.85,1:06:56.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,During the Han Dinasty, \Nthe major officials received here
Dialogue: 0,1:06:56.01,1:06:59.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,included the king of Kholan Kingdom\Nfrom the Western Regions,
Dialogue: 0,1:06:59.28,1:07:02.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the king of the Wusun, \Nalso called the Issedones
Dialogue: 0,1:07:02.33,1:07:05.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the king of the Kangu, \Nalso called the Sogdians.
Dialogue: 0,1:07:05.56,1:07:08.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At most, the number of received guests\Nwould be over 1000.
Dialogue: 0,1:07:11.92,1:07:16.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Therefore, this place was filled up\Nwith a mixture of people from all regions.
Dialogue: 0,1:07:17.91,1:07:20.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It would be used for merchants,
Dialogue: 0,1:07:20.12,1:07:22.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it would also be used\Nfor government business.
Dialogue: 0,1:07:22.98,1:07:24.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,People could travel long distances
Dialogue: 0,1:07:24.73,1:07:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,knowing that there was somewhere\Nthey could stay
Dialogue: 0,1:07:27.02,1:07:29.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,be refreshed and recover,\Nchange their horses,
Dialogue: 0,1:07:29.34,1:07:32.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then move on\Nto the next relay station.
Dialogue: 0,1:07:34.12,1:07:37.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The wonderful thing about\Nthe Xuanquanzhi trading post
Dialogue: 0,1:07:37.66,1:07:43.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was that it's in a part of the country\Nthat is not built up now,
Dialogue: 0,1:07:43.18,1:07:47.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the environment, very, very dry\Nand often very cold in the winter,
Dialogue: 0,1:07:47.14,1:07:49.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,means that things\Nare preserved there very well.
Dialogue: 0,1:07:49.82,1:07:52.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, a lot of the things \N- inside that trading post -
Dialogue: 0,1:07:52.89,1:07:55.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,have survived instead of decomposing.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:01.12,1:08:04.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Excavators were especially excited\Nto find something
Dialogue: 0,1:08:04.27,1:08:07.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that perhaps only\Nan archaeologist could love:
Dialogue: 0,1:08:09.49,1:08:12.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the 2,000-year-old equivalent \Nof toilet paper.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:14.08,1:08:16.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In China, they wrote back,\Nin the Han dynasty times,
Dialogue: 0,1:08:16.100,1:08:19.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how they would have a stick \Nwith cloth wrapped on the end
Dialogue: 0,1:08:19.74,1:08:21.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for people to wipe themselves with.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:21.42,1:08:24.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There were quite a few \Nof these sticks thrown into the latrine
Dialogue: 0,1:08:24.45,1:08:27.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as if people discarded them\Nin there when they'd finished.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:27.21,1:08:30.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These sticks have been found\Nat some other excavations in China as well
Dialogue: 0,1:08:30.57,1:08:32.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but what's great about this relay station
Dialogue: 0,1:08:32.53,1:08:34.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is we still have the cloth\Nwrapped on the end
Dialogue: 0,1:08:34.66,1:08:37.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we still have the human faeces on.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:38.05,1:08:41.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, we scraped off \Nthe dried faeces from the cloth
Dialogue: 0,1:08:41.85,1:08:43.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and took them to the lab.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:43.75,1:08:45.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We found four different\Nspecies of parasite
Dialogue: 0,1:08:45.83,1:08:47.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in those who used this latrine.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:47.99,1:08:51.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Two of the species are spread by faeces
Dialogue: 0,1:08:51.08,1:08:54.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,contaminating your food\Nor your hands or your drink:
Dialogue: 0,1:08:54.41,1:08:56.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,roundworm and whipworm.
Dialogue: 0,1:08:56.89,1:08:59.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Another species was a kind of tapeworm
Dialogue: 0,1:08:59.81,1:09:03.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they probably acquired\Nby eating raw or undercooked pork.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:04.29,1:09:07.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then, we found\Nthe really exciting find,
Dialogue: 0,1:09:07.48,1:09:09.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which was the Chinese liver fluke.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:11.33,1:09:13.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a small flatworm
Dialogue: 0,1:09:13.98,1:09:16.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that lives in eastern and southern\NChina and in Korea.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:17.33,1:09:20.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It can only survive in marshy, wet places.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:20.31,1:09:25.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But here, we found it 1500 kilometres away\Nfrom anywhere that has it in modern times.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:27.00,1:09:29.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, it wasn't what we expected to find.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:29.82,1:09:33.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was brilliant that we could find it\Non the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:33.16,1:09:35.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The liver fluke requires a lifecycle
Dialogue: 0,1:09:35.32,1:09:37.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where it passes through freshwater snails,
Dialogue: 0,1:09:37.60,1:09:39.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and through small fish\Nand then, bigger fish.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:39.94,1:09:43.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you cook the fish, \Nthen you don't get the liver fluke.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:43.37,1:09:46.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But if you eat the fish raw, \Nthen it hatches out in your stomach,
Dialogue: 0,1:09:46.51,1:09:49.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,migrates through your body, \Ncrawls into the liver,
Dialogue: 0,1:09:49.44,1:09:50.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then develops there.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:51.48,1:09:54.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There was no way that people\Nin the area of this relay station
Dialogue: 0,1:09:54.91,1:09:57.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could have caught it \Nin that particular area
Dialogue: 0,1:09:57.29,1:09:59.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it was far too dry.
Dialogue: 0,1:09:59.32,1:10:00.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There were no lakes.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:00.78,1:10:03.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There were no freshwater snails\Nand fish for them to infect.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:04.96,1:10:10.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The discovery of the liver fluke\Nis of great importance.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:12.84,1:10:17.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It indicates that the caravans \Nor government servants
Dialogue: 0,1:10:17.94,1:10:21.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,brought their excrement,\Nas well as diseases ,here
Dialogue: 0,1:10:21.60,1:10:25.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,over thousands of kilometers\Nof travel to this place, Xuanquan station.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:30.26,1:10:33.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,With state of the art overseas analysis,
Dialogue: 0,1:10:33.41,1:10:36.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we are comparing it with similar\Nevidence originating in Europe.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:36.84,1:10:39.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to figure out whether the liver was spread
Dialogue: 0,1:10:39.72,1:10:42.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from China's eastern \Ncoastal area to Europe
Dialogue: 0,1:10:42.61,1:10:45.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or if it was spread from Europe to China
Dialogue: 0,1:10:45.54,1:10:48.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or if the disease spread \Nbetween these two areas.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:48.06,1:10:50.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We are doing some further research.
Dialogue: 0,1:10:51.72,1:10:54.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The finds at Xuanquanzhi have shown
Dialogue: 0,1:10:54.50,1:10:58.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that humans could carry diseases\Nlong distances along the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:11:03.89,1:11:07.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Another discovery has revealed\Nwhat could happen when they did.
Dialogue: 0,1:11:13.35,1:11:18.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In 2009, German scientists began\Ninvestigating a puzzling discovery
Dialogue: 0,1:11:18.84,1:11:21.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the Bavarian town of Aschheim.
Dialogue: 0,1:11:25.68,1:11:31.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,About 20 years ago a graveyard was found \Nwhich contained more than 400 individuals.
Dialogue: 0,1:11:32.10,1:11:38.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We dated it back to a period from \Naround the 5th century to the 7th century.
Dialogue: 0,1:11:38.44,1:11:41.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was exciting for us \Nthat there were a lot of graves
Dialogue: 0,1:11:41.41,1:11:44.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that contained more than one person
Dialogue: 0,1:11:44.38,1:11:51.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,around 20 graves \Nwhere 2 to 5 people were buried
Dialogue: 0,1:11:53.14,1:11:56.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Aschheim looked like any other cemetery
Dialogue: 0,1:11:56.97,1:11:58.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we would expect to find here
Dialogue: 0,1:11:58.88,1:12:00.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,except for these multiple burials
Dialogue: 0,1:12:00.91,1:12:05.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These people were buried together\Nin one grave and that made us curious.
Dialogue: 0,1:12:05.37,1:12:07.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we asked ourselves why exactly
Dialogue: 0,1:12:07.15,1:12:09.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these people were buried\Ntogether in one grave
Dialogue: 0,1:12:10.88,1:12:14.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Aschheim mass burial \Nwas an archaeological enigma,
Dialogue: 0,1:12:15.13,1:12:17.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but there was one crucial clue.
Dialogue: 0,1:12:19.38,1:12:23.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The bodies had been buried\Nduring the 6th century CE.
Dialogue: 0,1:12:29.74,1:12:34.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the 6th century, a terrifying illness\Ncalled the Plague of Justinian
Dialogue: 0,1:12:34.42,1:12:37.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,ravaged the Eastern Roman Empire.
Dialogue: 0,1:12:41.74,1:12:47.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It killed 30 to 50 million people\Nin Europe, Asia, and Africa,
Dialogue: 0,1:12:49.38,1:12:52.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,nearly half of all the people on Earth.
Dialogue: 0,1:12:52.89,1:12:57.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Historians tell us that thousands\Nof people were lying on the street
Dialogue: 0,1:12:57.18,1:12:59.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that tens of thousands
Dialogue: 0,1:12:59.22,1:13:01.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were dying at the peak of the plague,
Dialogue: 0,1:13:01.65,1:13:05.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so many that they could not be buried.
Dialogue: 0,1:13:05.19,1:13:09.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The corpses were thrown \Ninto watchtowers and sealed inside
Dialogue: 0,1:13:09.88,1:13:13.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because no one knew what to do with them.
Dialogue: 0,1:13:13.48,1:13:17.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, this epidemic is quite comparable\Nto the Black Death.
Dialogue: 0,1:13:17.89,1:13:21.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We asked ourselves what\Nthe multiple burials were about
Dialogue: 0,1:13:21.01,1:13:24.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and chose to screen for plague pathogen
Dialogue: 0,1:13:26.51,1:13:30.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Justinian plague arrived\Nin Constantinople on ships from Egypt,
Dialogue: 0,1:13:32.53,1:13:34.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but what the disease was
Dialogue: 0,1:13:34.68,1:13:37.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and where it came from \Nremained unknown.
Dialogue: 0,1:13:39.67,1:13:42.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The team investigating\NAschheim's mass burial
Dialogue: 0,1:13:42.33,1:13:45.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,hoped its bones might reveal the answer.
Dialogue: 0,1:13:45.47,1:13:50.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We tested more than 20 individuals,\Nanalysing their DNA
Dialogue: 0,1:13:50.30,1:13:55.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and found small fragments \Nof plague DNA in four individuals,
Dialogue: 0,1:13:55.52,1:13:58.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Just on this young woman, \Non one young woman,
Dialogue: 0,1:13:58.89,1:14:01.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there was enough DNA\Nto be able to analyse it really well.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:01.48,1:14:03.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that is this individual.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:03.44,1:14:06.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This woman has quite open skull sutures.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:06.23,1:14:09.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is how we know \Nthat she died quite young.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:10.10,1:14:14.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We would estimate this individual's age \Nat approximately early 20s.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:14.92,1:14:17.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In this case, we would see
Dialogue: 0,1:14:17.54,1:14:20.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if we could find the plague pathogen
Dialogue: 0,1:14:21.01,1:14:24.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and to do that we prefer to use teeth
Dialogue: 0,1:14:25.01,1:14:28.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like these teeth here.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:28.43,1:14:30.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Teeth with a lot of root
Dialogue: 0,1:14:30.85,1:14:34.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because the root contains DNA
Dialogue: 0,1:14:34.34,1:14:37.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and because it is embedded in the jaw.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:37.06,1:14:42.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It is well protected there, \Nand the DNA is preserved there best.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:42.15,1:14:46.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then we took this tooth \Nto the laboratory
Dialogue: 0,1:14:46.36,1:14:50.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to extract and examine the DNA\Nwith chemical methods.
Dialogue: 0,1:14:51.12,1:14:54.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when we had looked at the DNA \Nof this individual
Dialogue: 0,1:14:54.11,1:14:57.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we determined that\Nwe had actually found Yersini pestis,
Dialogue: 0,1:14:57.38,1:15:01.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the plague pathogen, the Black Death's.
Dialogue: 0,1:15:01.72,1:15:04.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What we could also determine
Dialogue: 0,1:15:04.46,1:15:09.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that this pathogen did not develop\Nin Europe but evolved in Asia
Dialogue: 0,1:15:11.26,1:15:14.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Studies like the Aschheim DNA project
Dialogue: 0,1:15:14.21,1:15:17.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,have concluded that 800 years\Nbefore the Black Death,
Dialogue: 0,1:15:17.92,1:15:21.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a plague traveled the Silk Road
Dialogue: 0,1:15:21.15,1:15:25.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that centuries later,\Nthe Black Death followed it in its path.
Dialogue: 0,1:15:29.36,1:15:30.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Most scholars now agree
Dialogue: 0,1:15:30.89,1:15:34.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the Black Death\Noriginated in central Asia
Dialogue: 0,1:15:35.78,1:15:37.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that it first reached Europe
Dialogue: 0,1:15:37.73,1:15:40.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on Italian merchant ships \Nreturning from the East.
Dialogue: 0,1:15:51.93,1:15:55.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Black Death killed \Nwith incredible speed.
Dialogue: 0,1:16:00.03,1:16:03.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Victims had only \Na week to a few hours to live.
Dialogue: 0,1:16:07.37,1:16:10.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Entire towns and monasteries \Nwere wiped out,
Dialogue: 0,1:16:11.23,1:16:13.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and no one knew what to do.
Dialogue: 0,1:16:16.55,1:16:19.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It may have spread about five miles a day,
Dialogue: 0,1:16:19.19,1:16:24.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is a lot faster than a lot \Nof modern bubonic plague outbreaks.
Dialogue: 0,1:16:25.70,1:16:29.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Whether it was because of the rate\Nat which people fled from it
Dialogue: 0,1:16:29.99,1:16:33.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that spread it faster than it might \Notherwise have been.
Dialogue: 0,1:16:34.04,1:16:35.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it certainly was something
Dialogue: 0,1:16:35.64,1:16:38.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that had a dramatic effect\Non people in Europe.
Dialogue: 0,1:16:38.32,1:16:40.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They all wrote about it,\Nthey were all scared of it.
Dialogue: 0,1:17:17.80,1:17:19.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, they had some concept of contagion
Dialogue: 0,1:17:19.99,1:17:21.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the idea that the disease
Dialogue: 0,1:17:21.54,1:17:23.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could be spread\Nfrom one person to another,
Dialogue: 0,1:17:23.62,1:17:25.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they didn't know how.
Dialogue: 0,1:17:27.48,1:17:30.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They had no idea about bacteria
Dialogue: 0,1:17:30.06,1:17:32.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or the spread of microorganisms\Nat that stage,
Dialogue: 0,1:17:32.79,1:17:35.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so, they hadn't worked out \Nhow a disease was spread.
Dialogue: 0,1:17:35.63,1:17:38.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But they just realized that one person\Nseemed to be able
Dialogue: 0,1:17:38.26,1:17:40.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to spread it to the rest of their family,
Dialogue: 0,1:17:40.28,1:17:43.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so, they realized something\Nmust be happening there.
Dialogue: 0,1:17:58.57,1:18:00.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Baffled physicians consulted the works
Dialogue: 0,1:18:00.74,1:18:03.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of ancient authorities like Hippocrates,
Dialogue: 0,1:18:03.22,1:18:06.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who lived four centuries\Nbefore the birth of Jesus,
Dialogue: 0,1:18:08.90,1:18:12.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and Galen, who lived \Ntwo centuries after Jesus' death.
Dialogue: 0,1:18:16.70,1:18:20.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Hippocrates and Galen believed\Nthat illness was a result
Dialogue: 0,1:18:20.38,1:18:23.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of an imbalance among\Nfour so-called humours:
Dialogue: 0,1:18:24.78,1:18:28.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,blood, phlegm, \Nyellow bile, and black bile.
Dialogue: 0,1:18:31.89,1:18:35.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The theory was that if you had\Nyour four humours in balance
Dialogue: 0,1:18:35.89,1:18:39.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— your blood, your phlegm, \Nyour black bile and your yellow bile —
Dialogue: 0,1:18:39.04,1:18:40.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then you'd be healthy.
Dialogue: 0,1:18:40.42,1:18:41.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If they came out of balance
Dialogue: 0,1:18:41.89,1:18:44.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or if you had corruption \Nof one of your humours,
Dialogue: 0,1:18:44.85,1:18:47.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then that would make you unwell.
Dialogue: 0,1:18:47.57,1:18:49.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, the treatments that doctors used
Dialogue: 0,1:18:49.58,1:18:52.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were largely based on their understanding\Nof humoural theory.
Dialogue: 0,1:18:52.84,1:18:56.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, at the beginning, they tried\Nthe normal treatments
Dialogue: 0,1:18:56.25,1:19:00.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of dietary modification\Nand bloodletting and baths and so on,
Dialogue: 0,1:19:00.48,1:19:02.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they had no effect.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:04.86,1:19:08.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They believed that bad vapours \Nwere coming up from the ground,
Dialogue: 0,1:19:08.76,1:19:11.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,making people ill, \Naffecting their humours.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:11.79,1:19:15.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They believed that a strong \Nsoutherly wind was a bad thing
Dialogue: 0,1:19:15.98,1:19:18.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that made a lot of people ill,
Dialogue: 0,1:19:19.15,1:19:22.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it was a combination \Nof the alignments of the planets,
Dialogue: 0,1:19:22.36,1:19:26.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because they believed in astrology \Nand its effect on your risk of disease.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:27.77,1:19:31.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They really didn't have a structured \Nmedical approach to how to deal with it.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:31.97,1:19:33.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It took everyone off guard.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:33.80,1:19:36.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,No one knew how to deal with it.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:38.43,1:19:40.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The doctors were effectively powerless.
Dialogue: 0,1:19:49.05,1:19:52.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some citizens attempted another cure.
Dialogue: 0,1:20:02.42,1:20:05.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Jews in Europe suffered \Nfewer deaths from plague.
Dialogue: 0,1:20:07.10,1:20:09.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That may have been because\Nthey were socially isolated
Dialogue: 0,1:20:09.95,1:20:13.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and practiced better hygiene \Nthan the general population.
Dialogue: 0,1:20:15.48,1:20:17.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But surviving the Black Death
Dialogue: 0,1:20:17.95,1:20:21.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,cost thousands \Nof European Jews their lives.
Dialogue: 0,1:20:22.84,1:20:25.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,All across plague-stricken Europe,
Dialogue: 0,1:20:25.11,1:20:28.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the already age-old Christian\Nprejudice against Jews
Dialogue: 0,1:20:28.90,1:20:31.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,exploded into murderous hatred.
Dialogue: 0,1:20:32.24,1:20:35.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They believed that people \Nwith leprosy or Jewish people
Dialogue: 0,1:20:35.64,1:20:38.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,may have actually exacerbated the plague\Nby poisoning people.
Dialogue: 0,1:20:44.82,1:20:48.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, this is a sign of how panicked\Nand how worried everybody was,
Dialogue: 0,1:20:48.58,1:20:52.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they were thinking of really \Nquite bizarre kind of interpretations
Dialogue: 0,1:20:52.43,1:20:55.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as to why everybody was becoming sick.
Dialogue: 0,1:21:05.47,1:21:07.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,While mobs murdered Jews,
Dialogue: 0,1:21:07.74,1:21:10.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,physicians tried to stop the Black Death.
Dialogue: 0,1:21:10.74,1:21:13.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When traditional theories of disease failed,
Dialogue: 0,1:21:14.01,1:21:17.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they resorted to studying the disease itself.
Dialogue: 0,1:21:26.81,1:21:30.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were desperate to understand\Nwhat was causing the Black Death,
Dialogue: 0,1:21:32.30,1:21:35.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how it spread, and how to treat it.
Dialogue: 0,1:21:40.03,1:21:42.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Slowly, they found answers.
Dialogue: 0,1:21:44.73,1:21:48.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They tried various treatments, \Nbut no medicines had any effect.
Dialogue: 0,1:21:48.67,1:21:50.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But that's why they moved over time
Dialogue: 0,1:21:50.72,1:21:53.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to trying to restrict\Nthe contact of people,
Dialogue: 0,1:21:53.03,1:21:55.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,burning the clothes \Nof people that had died
Dialogue: 0,1:21:55.15,1:21:57.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,rather than giving them to other people.
Dialogue: 0,1:21:57.80,1:22:00.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they realized that the clothes \Nand spread of people
Dialogue: 0,1:22:00.56,1:22:03.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was an important way \Nthey could stop the spread of disease.
Dialogue: 0,1:22:07.01,1:22:10.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So. we have the introduction\Nof concept of quarantine,
Dialogue: 0,1:22:10.63,1:22:13.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where people weren't allowed\Nto move from one area to another
Dialogue: 0,1:22:13.83,1:22:16.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if there was a plague outbreak
Dialogue: 0,1:22:16.13,1:22:19.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and also that when sailors\Nin ships arrived in a port,
Dialogue: 0,1:22:19.56,1:22:22.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they may have to stay\Nin a quarantined area
Dialogue: 0,1:22:22.05,1:22:23.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for a certain number of days
Dialogue: 0,1:22:23.76,1:22:26.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until they were found\Nto be clear of the disease,
Dialogue: 0,1:22:26.19,1:22:29.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then they could move inland \Nand actually go into town.
Dialogue: 0,1:22:32.47,1:22:35.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Over time, this new \Ntrial and error approach
Dialogue: 0,1:22:35.77,1:22:38.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would spawn a medical revolution.
Dialogue: 0,1:22:40.91,1:22:43.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some 200 years after the Black Death,
Dialogue: 0,1:22:43.82,1:22:46.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the brilliant physician Andreas Vesalius
Dialogue: 0,1:22:46.82,1:22:50.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,published meticulous studies\Nof the human body
Dialogue: 0,1:22:50.40,1:22:53.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that exploded ancient \Nand medieval theories
Dialogue: 0,1:22:53.72,1:22:56.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and gave birth to modern anatomy.
Dialogue: 0,1:22:58.08,1:23:00.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Europe's battle against the Black Death
Dialogue: 0,1:23:00.72,1:23:03.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,taught lessons that helped \Ncreate modern medicine.
Dialogue: 0,1:23:04.80,1:23:06.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And even centuries later,
Dialogue: 0,1:23:07.00,1:23:09.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Black Death still has much to teach.
Dialogue: 0,1:23:10.46,1:23:14.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, this is a skull of a man\Nwho survived the Black Death
Dialogue: 0,1:23:14.52,1:23:18.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and died in Cambridge\Nin the later part of the 1300s.
Dialogue: 0,1:23:18.93,1:23:20.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We know he survived the Black Death
Dialogue: 0,1:23:21.08,1:23:24.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because we have a radiocarbon date\Nthat's shown when he died,
Dialogue: 0,1:23:24.15,1:23:27.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we know he was \Na fairly old individual.
Dialogue: 0,1:23:29.25,1:23:31.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of the things we're doing here
Dialogue: 0,1:23:31.43,1:23:34.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is a project looking at the effect\Nof the bubonic plague
Dialogue: 0,1:23:34.48,1:23:37.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,upon the British population,\Nspecifically in Cambridge.
Dialogue: 0,1:23:37.29,1:23:39.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And what we're trying to find out
Dialogue: 0,1:23:39.13,1:23:41.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is what are different \Nabout people who survived
Dialogue: 0,1:23:41.44,1:23:43.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,compared with people who died.
Dialogue: 0,1:23:43.83,1:23:45.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That way, we can work out
Dialogue: 0,1:23:45.36,1:23:48.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how the Black Death really changed \Nthe population of Britain
Dialogue: 0,1:23:48.55,1:23:51.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and what our population\Nmight have been like
Dialogue: 0,1:23:51.12,1:23:55.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,had half of us not died\Nin the mid-1300s.
Dialogue: 0,1:23:55.90,1:23:58.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And to do that, \Nwe're looking at the genetics,
Dialogue: 0,1:23:58.36,1:24:03.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the height, the health,\Nand many other aspects of the skeletons
Dialogue: 0,1:24:03.26,1:24:06.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we find who died \Nbefore the Black Death
Dialogue: 0,1:24:06.17,1:24:08.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the ones who died afterwards
Dialogue: 0,1:24:08.18,1:24:11.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so we can see the effect \Nof this epidemic upon people in Britain.
Dialogue: 0,1:24:11.46,1:24:14.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, what we're hoping to find out\Nis what is different
Dialogue: 0,1:24:14.20,1:24:16.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about the genes\Nof the people that survived.
Dialogue: 0,1:24:16.29,1:24:18.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Did they somehow have a better resistance
Dialogue: 0,1:24:18.66,1:24:20.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to bubonic plague than other people,
Dialogue: 0,1:24:20.58,1:24:22.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or was it just mere chance
Dialogue: 0,1:24:22.11,1:24:24.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as to who survived and who died?
Dialogue: 0,1:24:30.52,1:24:33.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Those who did survive led better lives
Dialogue: 0,1:24:33.85,1:24:38.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as the greatest horror of their age\Ngave way to a new era.
Dialogue: 0,1:24:46.99,1:24:50.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Black Death had decimated\NEurope's workforce.
Dialogue: 0,1:24:52.95,1:24:57.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Desperate for labour, the nobility\Nhad to compete for surviving workers
Dialogue: 0,1:24:57.99,1:24:59.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by offering higher wages.
Dialogue: 0,1:25:13.86,1:25:16.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Over the next few centuries,
Dialogue: 0,1:25:16.18,1:25:19.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we see a complete rebalancing \Nin the population.
Dialogue: 0,1:25:19.40,1:25:22.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, the poor hungry farmers\Nwho didn't have enough land
Dialogue: 0,1:25:22.41,1:25:24.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were suddenly in a different position.
Dialogue: 0,1:25:24.50,1:25:26.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The farmers around them had died.\N1:25:25
Dialogue: 0,1:25:26.53,1:25:29.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Their income could go up because\Nthey could farm much more land.
Dialogue: 0,1:25:29.62,1:25:33.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so, there was less poverty\Nand famine among the farmers.
Dialogue: 0,1:25:37.91,1:25:41.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Opportunities increased\Ndue to the shortage of workers.
Dialogue: 0,1:25:44.92,1:25:46.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Women could now be scribes
Dialogue: 0,1:25:47.00,1:25:50.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and hold other jobs\Nformerly reserved for men.
Dialogue: 0,1:25:52.88,1:25:56.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The European middle class was born.
Dialogue: 0,1:25:59.46,1:26:03.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The fact that we then had \Nfewer people able to do manual labour
Dialogue: 0,1:26:03.64,1:26:07.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,means that not only\Ndid the price of their labour go up
Dialogue: 0,1:26:07.13,1:26:09.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so then they had better income.
Dialogue: 0,1:26:10.36,1:26:13.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It also means that there seems\Nto have been a number of inventions
Dialogue: 0,1:26:13.87,1:26:17.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made specifically \Nfor labour-saving devices.
Dialogue: 0,1:26:17.89,1:26:20.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We find the introduction\Nof the spinning wheel.
Dialogue: 0,1:26:21.33,1:26:23.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We find horizontal looms.
Dialogue: 0,1:26:23.27,1:26:25.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We find fulling mills.
Dialogue: 0,1:26:25.22,1:26:28.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We had blast furnaces, \Nmechanized tools,
Dialogue: 0,1:26:29.99,1:26:32.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we have three-masted ships
Dialogue: 0,1:26:32.09,1:26:35.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that could hold a lot more cargo\Nwith only a small number of more sailors,
Dialogue: 0,1:26:35.86,1:26:38.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so it's a much more efficient\Nway of trade.
Dialogue: 0,1:26:38.73,1:26:40.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, over the next 200 years or so,
Dialogue: 0,1:26:41.02,1:26:43.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we see big improvements in mechanization.
Dialogue: 0,1:26:43.95,1:26:46.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the fact that fewer people around
Dialogue: 0,1:26:46.55,1:26:49.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,meant that these things\Nmay have been invented
Dialogue: 0,1:26:49.72,1:26:53.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because of the shortage of people \Nfollowing the Black Death.
Dialogue: 0,1:27:06.33,1:27:08.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Newly affluent Europeans
Dialogue: 0,1:27:08.28,1:27:12.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,created a bigger market \Nfor exotic imported goods.
Dialogue: 0,1:27:19.64,1:27:22.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Especially for one faraway luxury
Dialogue: 0,1:27:22.41,1:27:25.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,traded since ancient times \Nalong the Silk Road:
Dialogue: 0,1:27:28.75,1:27:30.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Spices.
Dialogue: 0,1:27:38.98,1:27:40.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the late Middle Ages,
Dialogue: 0,1:27:40.72,1:27:44.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Asian spices like pepper, \Ncinnamon, and cloves
Dialogue: 0,1:27:44.38,1:27:47.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were highly valuable commodities.
Dialogue: 0,1:28:03.82,1:28:08.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In London, dockworkers' bonuses\Nwere paid with Indonesian cloves.
Dialogue: 0,1:28:09.98,1:28:13.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In Venice, people\Nbought houses with pepper.
Dialogue: 0,1:28:26.42,1:28:29.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Anyone brave enough to seek out spices
Dialogue: 0,1:28:29.06,1:28:31.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could get very, very rich.
Dialogue: 0,1:28:34.55,1:28:39.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And trading in spices meant travelling \Nthe trade routes between East and West.
Dialogue: 0,1:28:54.08,1:28:56.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Venetian merchants traveled those routes
Dialogue: 0,1:28:56.95,1:28:59.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and dominated the spice trade.
Dialogue: 0,1:29:01.15,1:29:04.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Europe had to pay \Nwhatever Venice demanded.
Dialogue: 0,1:29:10.09,1:29:13.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Venice became \Na fabulously wealthy city,
Dialogue: 0,1:29:15.10,1:29:18.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while the rest of Europe\Ngrumbled and paid.
Dialogue: 0,1:29:21.53,1:29:26.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Meanwhile, China was also making \Nepic voyages to the spice lands
Dialogue: 0,1:29:26.76,1:29:31.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and developing some of the world's \Nmost advanced maritime technology.
Dialogue: 0,1:29:32.63,1:29:35.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,During the 13th and 14th centuries,
Dialogue: 0,1:29:35.19,1:29:37.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,foreign visitors to China were awed
Dialogue: 0,1:29:37.96,1:29:42.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by the size and sophistication \Nof Chinese vessels.
Dialogue: 0,1:29:42.74,1:29:47.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the year 1345, \Nthe Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta
Dialogue: 0,1:29:47.60,1:29:51.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,wrote of seeing massive ships \Nthat could carry a thousand men,
Dialogue: 0,1:29:51.66,1:29:53.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the only ships big enough
Dialogue: 0,1:29:53.87,1:29:56.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to make the long journey\Nfrom China to India.
Dialogue: 0,1:30:03.62,1:30:08.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And Marco Polo told of sailing\Non a Chinese spice trading vessel
Dialogue: 0,1:30:08.34,1:30:11.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the year 1292 CE.
Dialogue: 0,1:30:17.37,1:30:19.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The experience deeply impressed him.
Dialogue: 0,1:30:24.98,1:30:27.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He claimed the Chinese ship he sailed on
Dialogue: 0,1:30:27.81,1:30:32.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was capable of holding \N5,000 to 6,000 baskets of pepper,
Dialogue: 0,1:30:32.55,1:30:37.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a much bigger cargo than the spice ships \Nof his native Venice could hold.
Dialogue: 0,1:30:42.19,1:30:45.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that his vessel \Nwas escorted by smaller ships
Dialogue: 0,1:30:45.64,1:30:48.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that could carry \Na thousand pepper baskets.
Dialogue: 0,1:30:51.40,1:30:55.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Polo embarked on his journey \Nfrom the Chinese port of Quanzhou,
Dialogue: 0,1:30:55.59,1:30:59.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a place he described as teeming\Nwith hundreds of vessels
Dialogue: 0,1:30:59.22,1:31:02.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from China and from distant lands.
Dialogue: 0,1:31:03.13,1:31:06.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But he didn't report his vessel's\Nexact dimensions,
Dialogue: 0,1:31:06.68,1:31:10.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,leaving historians to wonder\Nif he'd exaggerated the ship's size
Dialogue: 0,1:31:11.25,1:31:14.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or even if he'd actually sailed on it.
Dialogue: 0,1:31:17.90,1:31:20.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then, in 1973,
Dialogue: 0,1:31:20.70,1:31:25.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese archaeologists\Nfound a shipwreck in Quanzhou Harbour.
Dialogue: 0,1:31:27.32,1:31:31.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The ship had a capacity of 200 tons
Dialogue: 0,1:31:31.07,1:31:34.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and displacement of over 400 tons.
Dialogue: 0,1:31:34.63,1:31:37.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The collection of excavated relics
Dialogue: 0,1:31:37.38,1:31:41.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,revealed that the wrecked ship\Nwas carrying a lot of spices
Dialogue: 0,1:31:42.94,1:31:45.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,more than 2,000 kilograms of spice,
Dialogue: 0,1:31:45.100,1:31:47.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,along with some other things
Dialogue: 0,1:31:47.86,1:31:50.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,such as Chinese chess \Nand some exotic goods.
Dialogue: 0,1:31:50.14,1:31:52.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Based on these findings, \Narchaelogists concluded
Dialogue: 0,1:31:52.99,1:31:55.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that this ship was returning\Nfrom Southeats Asia
Dialogue: 0,1:31:56.86,1:32:01.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Quanzhou Ship was carrying rare woods\Nfrom Java and Cambodia,
Dialogue: 0,1:32:02.54,1:32:04.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,frankincense from Arabia,
Dialogue: 0,1:32:04.68,1:32:07.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,even ambergris from Somalia.
Dialogue: 0,1:32:16.69,1:32:19.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It sank in the year 1277,
Dialogue: 0,1:32:19.47,1:32:24.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just 15 years before \NMarco Polo visited Quanzhou.
Dialogue: 0,1:32:26.05,1:32:30.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And its design and construction\Nwere remarkably advanced for their time,
Dialogue: 0,1:32:32.12,1:32:34.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,featuring watertight compartments\Nand other innovations
Dialogue: 0,1:32:34.99,1:32:38.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,centuries before \NWestern vessels had them.
Dialogue: 0,1:32:40.10,1:32:41.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The hull was easily damaged
Dialogue: 0,1:32:41.78,1:32:44.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In case of hull damage, \Nif the ship was built
Dialogue: 0,1:32:44.04,1:32:47.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with watertight bulkhead compartments\Nand water channels in its lower hull
Dialogue: 0,1:32:47.64,1:32:49.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the ship would be able\Nto survive the damage.
Dialogue: 0,1:32:49.92,1:32:52.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If the opening was quite small\Nand the water came into the ship
Dialogue: 0,1:32:52.93,1:32:55.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you only needed to close\Nthe water channels
Dialogue: 0,1:32:55.14,1:32:57.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,near the the forward-most\Nand at-most bulkheads
Dialogue: 0,1:32:57.91,1:33:00.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to keep the leak inside one compartment.
Dialogue: 0,1:33:00.21,1:33:02.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It gave the crew enough time
Dialogue: 0,1:33:02.99,1:33:05.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to move the cargo to other cabins \Nand repair the leakage
Dialogue: 0,1:33:05.97,1:33:08.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the damaged compartment immediately.
Dialogue: 0,1:33:09.40,1:33:10.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In addition,\Nin the stern part of the ship,
Dialogue: 0,1:33:11.07,1:33:14.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we found a rudder hole.
Dialogue: 0,1:33:14.60,1:33:16.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Back in the Five Dynasties,\Nbefore the Song Dinasty,
Dialogue: 0,1:33:16.78,1:33:21.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,our shipbuilders had invented\Nan elevating rudder,
Dialogue: 0,1:33:21.82,1:33:24.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By raising or lowering this rudder,
Dialogue: 0,1:33:24.56,1:33:27.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one could control \Nthe swing fluctuation and direction
Dialogue: 0,1:33:27.12,1:33:29.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while operating the ship.
Dialogue: 0,1:33:29.59,1:33:33.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Several hundred years later,
Dialogue: 0,1:33:33.35,1:33:37.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,many foreign sailing ships\Nstarted using this tecnhology.
Dialogue: 0,1:33:39.63,1:33:42.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,35 metres long and 10 metres wide,
Dialogue: 0,1:33:42.50,1:33:45.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Quanzhou ship could have been
Dialogue: 0,1:33:45.03,1:33:48.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one of the smaller vessels\Nthat escorted Marco Polo's bigger ship.
Dialogue: 0,1:33:52.56,1:33:54.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And there's also evidence
Dialogue: 0,1:33:54.57,1:33:57.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that very large Chinese\Ntrading vessels did exist.
Dialogue: 0,1:34:00.01,1:34:02.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This park in the Chinese city of Nanjing
Dialogue: 0,1:34:02.71,1:34:07.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is built on the remains of a shipyard\Ndating from the 14th century.
Dialogue: 0,1:34:14.62,1:34:17.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When they excavated that shipyard,
Dialogue: 0,1:34:17.28,1:34:20.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,archaeologists found \Ntwo giant rudder posts,
Dialogue: 0,1:34:20.63,1:34:23.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,each of them over 10 metres long.
Dialogue: 0,1:34:32.94,1:34:36.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese records speak \Nof giant treasure ships
Dialogue: 0,1:34:36.33,1:34:40.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,carrying trade goods\Non epic journeys to faraway lands.
Dialogue: 0,1:34:44.09,1:34:47.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Commanded by the distinguished \Nadmiral Zheng He,
Dialogue: 0,1:34:47.39,1:34:50.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a Chinese armada called the Great Fleet
Dialogue: 0,1:34:50.23,1:34:54.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made seven voyages\Nbetween the years 1405 and 1433.
Dialogue: 0,1:34:57.47,1:35:00.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,From Liugiagang\Nin China's Jiangsu Province,
Dialogue: 0,1:35:01.02,1:35:04.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the fleet sailed on diplomatic missions\Nto southeast Asia,
Dialogue: 0,1:35:04.75,1:35:08.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the great Indian seaport \Nof Calicut, Arabia,
Dialogue: 0,1:35:08.06,1:35:10.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and along Africa's east coast,
Dialogue: 0,1:35:10.74,1:35:15.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,forging relationships that linked\Nseaborne and overland trade.
Dialogue: 0,1:35:16.54,1:35:20.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Over 300 ships carrying nearly 30,000 men
Dialogue: 0,1:35:20.17,1:35:23.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,sailed on the first of those expeditions.
Dialogue: 0,1:35:25.28,1:35:27.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chronicles of those voyages claim
Dialogue: 0,1:35:27.22,1:35:29.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the largest of Zheng He's ships.
Dialogue: 0,1:35:29.31,1:35:34.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were over 130 metres long\Nand over 50 metres wide.
Dialogue: 0,1:35:36.74,1:35:38.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But marine engineers doubt
Dialogue: 0,1:35:38.82,1:35:41.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,ships that big \Nwould have been seaworthy.
Dialogue: 0,1:35:46.30,1:35:51.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The American clipper ship\N"Great Republic" launched in 1853,
Dialogue: 0,1:35:51.43,1:35:55.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was 102 metres long and 16 metres wide.
Dialogue: 0,1:35:58.85,1:36:02.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In 1872, her leaking hull \Nsank her in a hurricane.
Dialogue: 0,1:36:07.24,1:36:12.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The "Wyoming," built in 1909, \Nwas 110 metres long.
Dialogue: 0,1:36:16.94,1:36:21.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Its extreme length made it\Nstructurally unstable in heavy seas.
Dialogue: 0,1:36:25.89,1:36:29.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In 1924, the "Wyoming" sank \Nduring a storm.
Dialogue: 0,1:36:33.41,1:36:37.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If Zheng He's treasure ships were as big\Nas Chinese chronicles claim,
Dialogue: 0,1:36:39.13,1:36:42.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they would have been\Nas long and wide as the "Wyoming"
Dialogue: 0,1:36:42.65,1:36:44.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and longer than the "Great Republic."
Dialogue: 0,1:36:46.58,1:36:49.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When we consulted some shipbuilders
Dialogue: 0,1:36:49.88,1:36:52.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they tell that the size \Nof the Treasure Ship
Dialogue: 0,1:36:52.86,1:36:56.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was beyond the maximum capability
Dialogue: 0,1:36:56.43,1:37:00.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we could possibly make even today.
Dialogue: 0,1:37:00.79,1:37:04.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Therefore, more archaeological discoveries
Dialogue: 0,1:37:04.13,1:37:07.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and stronger evidence \Nare needed to verify the truth
Dialogue: 0,1:37:07.56,1:37:10.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about Zhen He's Treasure Ship
Dialogue: 0,1:37:10.92,1:37:14.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and prove what was written \Nin the ancient literature.
Dialogue: 0,1:37:17.30,1:37:19.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Whatever the size of its ships,
Dialogue: 0,1:37:19.44,1:37:22.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Great Fleet deeply impressed\Nmaritime trading nations
Dialogue: 0,1:37:22.85,1:37:25.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from Indochina to Africa.
Dialogue: 0,1:37:27.97,1:37:32.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,China seemed poised to dominate\Nthe coveted spice trade.
Dialogue: 0,1:37:33.86,1:37:38.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But in 1433, Admiral Zheng He died.
Dialogue: 0,1:37:39.38,1:37:41.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,About the same time,
Dialogue: 0,1:37:41.17,1:37:44.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Chinese court began losing interest\Nin long-distance voyaging,
Dialogue: 0,1:37:44.80,1:37:48.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and Chinese seafaring \Nentered a long decline.
Dialogue: 0,1:37:50.85,1:37:54.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Scarcely more than 100 years\Nafter the Great Fleet's last voyage,
Dialogue: 0,1:37:55.16,1:37:58.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the emperor declared overseas\Nvoyaging a crime,
Dialogue: 0,1:38:00.71,1:38:05.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it wasn't long before east-west trade\Nsuffered another blow.
Dialogue: 0,1:38:08.11,1:38:10.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the middle of the 15th century,
Dialogue: 0,1:38:10.26,1:38:13.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the once-mighty Byzantine Empire\Nwas in deep decline.
Dialogue: 0,1:38:15.14,1:38:18.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Ottoman Turks, descendants\Nof central Asian nomads,
Dialogue: 0,1:38:18.85,1:38:22.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,had conquered most of its territory.
Dialogue: 0,1:38:22.06,1:38:26.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Byzantine emperor ruled only\Nhis capital of Constantinople.
Dialogue: 0,1:38:33.82,1:38:36.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the Spring of 1453,
Dialogue: 0,1:38:36.18,1:38:40.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II\Nlaid siege to Constantinople.
Dialogue: 0,1:38:49.90,1:38:53.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The city was defended\Nby a mere 7,000 troops.
Dialogue: 0,1:38:55.94,1:38:59.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Mehmed had an army of some 80,000 men,
Dialogue: 0,1:39:00.31,1:39:03.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but Mehmed wasn't sure he would win.
Dialogue: 0,1:39:06.16,1:39:10.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The city's massive walls \Nhad withstood sieges for a thousand years.
Dialogue: 0,1:39:13.75,1:39:15.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Protected by those walls,
Dialogue: 0,1:39:15.86,1:39:19.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Constantinople's defenders\Nheld out for weeks.
Dialogue: 0,1:39:23.15,1:39:26.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But Mehmed didn't just have an army.
Dialogue: 0,1:39:26.36,1:39:29.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He had a mega-weapon:
Dialogue: 0,1:39:30.08,1:39:33.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a bronze cannon nearly 10 metres long
Dialogue: 0,1:39:33.04,1:39:37.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with a barrel nearly a metre in diameter \Nand 20 centimetres thick.
Dialogue: 0,1:39:38.14,1:39:42.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's said it could hurl\Na 450-kilogramstone cannonball
Dialogue: 0,1:39:42.95,1:39:45.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,more than 1 1/2 kilometres.
Dialogue: 0,1:39:45.80,1:39:49.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This behemoth and nearly 70 smaller cannon
Dialogue: 0,1:39:49.34,1:39:52.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,bombarded Constantinople's walls\Nday and night,
Dialogue: 0,1:39:54.71,1:39:56.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,damaging them so badly
Dialogue: 0,1:39:56.63,1:39:59.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the Turks succeeded\Nin taking the city.
Dialogue: 0,1:40:10.97,1:40:14.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The fall of Constantinople\Nwas a devastating blow to Europe.
Dialogue: 0,1:40:19.06,1:40:23.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Constantinople had been one of \NChristendom's oldest and holiest cities.
Dialogue: 0,1:40:26.61,1:40:29.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now it was the capital \Nof a powerful Muslim empire,
Dialogue: 0,1:40:30.03,1:40:35.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,renamed Istanbul from a Turkish word\Nmeaning "find Islam."
Dialogue: 0,1:40:40.35,1:40:42.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,From their new capital of Istanbul,
Dialogue: 0,1:40:42.79,1:40:45.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Ottomans now controlled \Naccess to the Black Sea
Dialogue: 0,1:40:46.14,1:40:48.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the eastern Mediterranean.
Dialogue: 0,1:40:48.72,1:40:52.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Europeans merchants \Nwere cut off from the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:40:55.56,1:40:59.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,For nearly 100 years, \NEuropeans had been growing wealthier
Dialogue: 0,1:40:59.12,1:41:03.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and more and more eager \Nto buy Asia's luxury goods.
Dialogue: 0,1:41:04.21,1:41:07.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Europe needed to find \Nnew routes to the East.
Dialogue: 0,1:41:09.70,1:41:13.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And within 50 years \Nof Constantinople's fall, it would.
Dialogue: 0,1:41:16.33,1:41:19.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At the Battle of Crécy \Nand the siege of Constantinople,
Dialogue: 0,1:41:22.27,1:41:25.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an ancient Chinese invention, gunpowder,
Dialogue: 0,1:41:25.27,1:41:28.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,had helped transform medieval Europe.
Dialogue: 0,1:41:40.65,1:41:45.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, another Chinese invention\Nand European innovation
Dialogue: 0,1:41:46.16,1:41:49.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would help transform the future.
Dialogue: 0,1:42:03.09,1:42:06.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Sometime in China's ancient past,
Dialogue: 0,1:42:06.40,1:42:10.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some unknown person\Ninvented something new.
Dialogue: 0,1:42:14.96,1:42:18.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By pounding plants \Nuntil they fell apart...
Dialogue: 0,1:42:21.66,1:42:24.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then boiling them in water...
Dialogue: 0,1:42:31.57,1:42:35.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then collecting the boiled plants\Non a screen and letting them dry...
Dialogue: 0,1:42:38.08,1:42:41.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,making what the ancient Chinese\Ncalled "refuse fibre"...
Dialogue: 0,1:42:45.40,1:42:48.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and what we know today as paper,
Dialogue: 0,1:42:51.40,1:42:53.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an invention so influential
Dialogue: 0,1:42:53.90,1:42:57.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that some believe the Silk Road \Nshould have been named for it.
Dialogue: 0,1:42:58.69,1:43:00.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"I would call it the Paper Road,
Dialogue: 0,1:43:00.43,1:43:03.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because I think paper \Nwas far more important than silk,
Dialogue: 0,1:43:03.84,1:43:06.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that, you know silk \Nis a very nice fabric.
Dialogue: 0,1:43:06.63,1:43:09.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's very strong; it's beautiful,\Nlustrous, and stuff like that.
Dialogue: 0,1:43:09.85,1:43:12.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it didn't have the impact \Non world history,
Dialogue: 0,1:43:12.59,1:43:15.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I would argue, that paper did.
Dialogue: 0,1:43:18.22,1:43:23.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Chinese believe\Nthat the court eunuch Cai Lun
Dialogue: 0,1:43:23.41,1:43:28.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,invented paper around the year 100\Nof the Common Era
Dialogue: 0,1:43:29.21,1:43:31.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and started using it for writing then.
Dialogue: 0,1:43:32.35,1:43:34.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese archaeologists, however,
Dialogue: 0,1:43:34.24,1:43:39.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,have discovered examples of paper\Nin the deserts of western China
Dialogue: 0,1:43:39.56,1:43:41.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that pre-date this by several centuries,
Dialogue: 0,1:43:41.74,1:43:44.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,perhaps three centuries or even more.
Dialogue: 0,1:43:44.68,1:43:48.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Chinese probably first used\Nthe new invention as a wrapping material,
Dialogue: 0,1:43:49.08,1:43:51.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while they kept writing\Nthe old-fashioned way,
Dialogue: 0,1:43:52.45,1:43:54.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on strips of bamboo.
Dialogue: 0,1:43:56.50,1:43:59.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can write so many characters\Non a strip of bamboo
Dialogue: 0,1:43:59.86,1:44:03.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that's maybe 40 centimetres long, \Nor you know, 12 inches.
Dialogue: 0,1:44:03.59,1:44:06.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The problem is, if you want \Nto write a novel, for example,
Dialogue: 0,1:44:06.87,1:44:09.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or a long historical text,
Dialogue: 0,1:44:09.10,1:44:11.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you need to have a whole pile\Nof those bamboo strips
Dialogue: 0,1:44:11.67,1:44:13.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and keep them together in order.
Dialogue: 0,1:44:13.82,1:44:15.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, that becomes heavy.
Dialogue: 0,1:44:17.61,1:44:22.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Paper, which is made from plant materials,\Nfrom the cellulose in plants,
Dialogue: 0,1:44:22.73,1:44:25.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,can be made anywhere that plants grow.
Dialogue: 0,1:44:27.66,1:44:30.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, you can make it virtually\Nanywhere in the world,
Dialogue: 0,1:44:30.53,1:44:32.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,out of virtually anything.
Dialogue: 0,1:44:36.64,1:44:39.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the early centuries of the Common Era,
Dialogue: 0,1:44:39.28,1:44:42.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,China was using paper\Nin all the ways we do now,
Dialogue: 0,1:44:42.92,1:44:46.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,even as facial tissue and toilet paper.
Dialogue: 0,1:44:49.00,1:44:53.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it wasn't long before\Nit traveled West along the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,1:44:54.100,1:44:57.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A journey that began as a pilgrimage.
Dialogue: 0,1:44:58.88,1:45:01.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The transformation of paper\Ninto a writing material
Dialogue: 0,1:45:01.54,1:45:04.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,came just at the time that Buddhism\Nwas introduced to China.
Dialogue: 0,1:45:07.64,1:45:10.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Buddhists of China were interested
Dialogue: 0,1:45:10.23,1:45:13.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in finding the original writings\Nabout the Buddha
Dialogue: 0,1:45:13.87,1:45:17.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and would travel to India to collect them.
Dialogue: 0,1:45:18.44,1:45:20.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so, it's thought
Dialogue: 0,1:45:20.13,1:45:23.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the Chinese Buddhist \Nmonks and missionaries
Dialogue: 0,1:45:23.48,1:45:26.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,brought knowledge \Nof paper and papermaking
Dialogue: 0,1:45:26.64,1:45:28.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with them to India
Dialogue: 0,1:45:28.59,1:45:31.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to collect these Buddhist scriptures
Dialogue: 0,1:45:31.38,1:45:34.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and brought them back to China.
Dialogue: 0,1:45:37.68,1:45:41.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese Buddhists travelled\Nto India along the Silk Road,
Dialogue: 0,1:45:42.10,1:45:45.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,detouring around the Himalayas\Nthrough China's western desert
Dialogue: 0,1:45:46.83,1:45:49.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and turning the Silk Road oasis\Nof Dunhuang
Dialogue: 0,1:45:49.83,1:45:52.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,into a magnificent Buddhist library.
Dialogue: 0,1:45:57.32,1:45:59.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In a desert without plants,
Dialogue: 0,1:45:59.40,1:46:02.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Dunhuang monks made paper\Nfrom rope and rags
Dialogue: 0,1:46:03.72,1:46:08.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and copied thousands of Buddhist texts\Nthey'd brought from India.
Dialogue: 0,1:46:13.87,1:46:15.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thanks to Chinese Buddhism
Dialogue: 0,1:46:15.88,1:46:19.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and to paper's obvious usefulness \Nfor keeping commercial accounts,
Dialogue: 0,1:46:19.91,1:46:23.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,papermaking began to spread \Nthroughout Asia.
Dialogue: 0,1:46:26.34,1:46:31.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As the Chinese then disseminated \NBuddhism throughout East Asia,
Dialogue: 0,1:46:31.82,1:46:34.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they took knowledge \Nof paper and papermaking
Dialogue: 0,1:46:34.73,1:46:38.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to such places as Korea, Japan, Vietnam.
Dialogue: 0,1:46:40.41,1:46:44.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We know that this is certainly
Dialogue: 0,1:46:44.09,1:46:47.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,before the time of the Muslim \Nconquest of Central Asia,
Dialogue: 0,1:46:47.18,1:46:49.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which occurred\Naround the year 700.
Dialogue: 0,1:46:50.47,1:46:52.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the eighth century CE,
Dialogue: 0,1:46:52.15,1:46:56.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Arab armies fighting in the name \Nof a new religion, Islam,
Dialogue: 0,1:46:56.63,1:47:01.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,thrust deep into Central Asia\Nand clashed with Chinese forces.
Dialogue: 0,1:47:04.16,1:47:06.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,During the same century,
Dialogue: 0,1:47:06.14,1:47:08.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Arab world began making its own paper,
Dialogue: 0,1:47:09.46,1:47:11.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,something that's traditionally \Nbeen explained
Dialogue: 0,1:47:11.100,1:47:16.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with a story about an iconic victory\Nof Arabs over Chinese.
Dialogue: 0,1:47:18.18,1:47:20.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Battle of Talas was a battle\Nthat took place
Dialogue: 0,1:47:20.50,1:47:23.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,between Muslim forces and Chinese forces,
Dialogue: 0,1:47:23.45,1:47:26.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in central Asia in 751.
Dialogue: 0,1:47:27.56,1:47:31.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,According to the historian Atha Al Abi
Dialogue: 0,1:47:31.20,1:47:35.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who lived something\Nlike 250 years after the event,
Dialogue: 0,1:47:35.46,1:47:38.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,he says that at this battle,
Dialogue: 0,1:47:38.04,1:47:40.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese papermakers were captured
Dialogue: 0,1:47:40.62,1:47:43.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that is how Muslims\Nlearned about papermaking.
Dialogue: 0,1:47:49.10,1:47:52.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It seems to me that this is a sort of nice
Dialogue: 0,1:47:52.79,1:47:55.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but not terribly believable story.
Dialogue: 0,1:47:55.80,1:47:59.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why would papermakers \Nhave been in the Chinese army?
Dialogue: 0,1:47:59.14,1:48:02.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's not as if, when you needed\Na sheet of paper, then you said,
Dialogue: 0,1:48:02.18,1:48:04.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Please, make me a sheet of paper."
Dialogue: 0,1:48:11.09,1:48:14.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's more likely that Arabs \Nlearned about paper
Dialogue: 0,1:48:14.12,1:48:16.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by trading along the Silk Road
Dialogue: 0,1:48:16.33,1:48:19.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and recognized\Nits immense practical value.
Dialogue: 0,1:48:21.66,1:48:24.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Middle Easterners could write \Non Egyptian papyrus,
Dialogue: 0,1:48:26.34,1:48:29.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they had to buy papyrus from Egypt.
Dialogue: 0,1:48:29.23,1:48:31.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Paper they could make themselves.
Dialogue: 0,1:48:33.42,1:48:35.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the end of the eighth century,
Dialogue: 0,1:48:35.65,1:48:38.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Arab papermaking was well underway.
Dialogue: 0,1:48:41.15,1:48:45.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The break-out moment for paper was \Nwhen Muslim bureaucracy encountered it.
Dialogue: 0,1:48:49.45,1:48:52.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Those bureaucrats ran\Nthe Abbasid Caliphate,
Dialogue: 0,1:48:52.64,1:48:55.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,founded around 750 CE.
Dialogue: 0,1:48:55.67,1:48:57.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,From their capital in Baghdad,
Dialogue: 0,1:48:57.85,1:49:01.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Abbasids ruled\Nthe greatest empire of its day.
Dialogue: 0,1:49:02.44,1:49:06.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The administrators of the empire\Nhad responsibility to keep records
Dialogue: 0,1:49:07.46,1:49:10.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about who was paid what, \Nwho owed what,
Dialogue: 0,1:49:10.49,1:49:14.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who owned what, who had to do what.
Dialogue: 0,1:49:18.28,1:49:23.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Less than a century of Muslims\Nfirst encountering it in central Asia,
Dialogue: 0,1:49:23.82,1:49:27.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were already making it\Nin the capital of the empire.
Dialogue: 0,1:49:27.95,1:49:31.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they quickly began using paper\Nfor more than keeping records.
Dialogue: 0,1:49:32.42,1:49:35.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In eighth-century Baghdad\Nand across the Arab world,
Dialogue: 0,1:49:37.22,1:49:39.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the availability of cheap paper
Dialogue: 0,1:49:39.14,1:49:43.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made possible one of humanity's\Ngreatest literary eras.
Dialogue: 0,1:49:45.49,1:49:48.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Baghdad becomes a centre of learning
Dialogue: 0,1:49:48.11,1:49:49.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where books are written,
Dialogue: 0,1:49:49.69,1:49:52.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,books are translated from other languages.
Dialogue: 0,1:49:54.57,1:49:57.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,People wrote books\Non every possible subject,
Dialogue: 0,1:49:57.49,1:50:00.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,not only on words \Nin the traditions of the Prophet,
Dialogue: 0,1:50:00.17,1:50:06.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but also cookbooks, popular literature, \Nscience, astronomy, geography,
Dialogue: 0,1:50:07.13,1:50:11.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,translations of Greek books \Non mathematics, all sorts of subjects.
Dialogue: 0,1:50:12.45,1:50:16.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this explosion of learning \Nhas long been known,
Dialogue: 0,1:50:16.11,1:50:17.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it's never been appreciated
Dialogue: 0,1:50:17.63,1:50:20.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it was based \Non the availability of paper.
Dialogue: 0,1:50:23.08,1:50:24.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,During the Middle Ages,
Dialogue: 0,1:50:24.94,1:50:28.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an intellectual Golden Age\Nflowered in Arab Spain.
Dialogue: 0,1:50:30.80,1:50:33.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Muslim, Jewish, and Christian scholars
Dialogue: 0,1:50:33.34,1:50:36.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,collaborated to translate, \Nteach, and preserve
Dialogue: 0,1:50:37.16,1:50:40.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,great works of science,\Nmathematics, and philosophy.
Dialogue: 0,1:50:43.07,1:50:48.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One story about the library \Nof the Cordovan Caliphate in Spain
Dialogue: 0,1:50:48.05,1:50:52.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the year 960 or 970\Nor something like that
Dialogue: 0,1:50:52.46,1:50:57.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,says that there were 400,000 books\Nin the royal library.
Dialogue: 0,1:50:59.88,1:51:02.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, that probably is an exaggeration.
Dialogue: 0,1:51:03.39,1:51:07.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, let's take a zero off it and say\Nthat there were 40,000 books,
Dialogue: 0,1:51:07.71,1:51:11.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but that is still more than ten times\Nthe number of books
Dialogue: 0,1:51:12.02,1:51:15.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that was in the largest\Nuniversity library in Europe,
Dialogue: 0,1:51:15.53,1:51:17.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,several centuries later.
Dialogue: 0,1:51:17.47,1:51:20.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because libraries in Europe \Nwere all on parchment
Dialogue: 0,1:51:20.76,1:51:23.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the libraries in the Muslim world\Nwere on paper.
Dialogue: 0,1:51:26.94,1:51:30.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Spain was probably where \NEuropeans first encountered paper.
Dialogue: 0,1:51:31.70,1:51:34.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But Italian merchants\Nwere also discovering it
Dialogue: 0,1:51:34.70,1:51:37.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,through long-distance trade.
Dialogue: 0,1:51:40.38,1:51:43.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a time when \NChristian merchants from Europe,
Dialogue: 0,1:51:43.20,1:51:46.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from such cities \Nas Pisa and Genoa, Venice,
Dialogue: 0,1:51:46.18,1:51:50.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are travelling to the cities \Nof the Muslim world
Dialogue: 0,1:51:50.43,1:51:53.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,such as Cairo and Damascus
Dialogue: 0,1:51:53.07,1:51:55.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in search of exotic items,
Dialogue: 0,1:51:55.71,1:51:58.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,goods like spices and silks,
Dialogue: 0,1:51:58.62,1:52:01.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they undoubtedly encountered paper.
Dialogue: 0,1:52:04.70,1:52:09.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Our first European use of paper \Nwould've been by merchants
Dialogue: 0,1:52:09.14,1:52:11.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who had seen Muslims\Nusing this stuff
Dialogue: 0,1:52:12.08,1:52:14.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and must have brought it back.
Dialogue: 0,1:52:16.74,1:52:19.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But at first, many Europeans\Nwere suspicious of paper.
Dialogue: 0,1:52:20.36,1:52:24.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It seemed so flimsy compared \Nwith parchmentsmade from animal skins.
Dialogue: 0,1:52:27.23,1:52:31.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II,\Nfor example, was familiar with paper
Dialogue: 0,1:52:31.68,1:52:35.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but didn't think much \Nof its qualities for preservation
Dialogue: 0,1:52:35.70,1:52:37.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or didn't know how long it would last,
Dialogue: 0,1:52:37.71,1:52:41.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so, he ordered all documents \Nthat had previously been copied on paper
Dialogue: 0,1:52:41.36,1:52:44.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to be recopied onto parchment.
Dialogue: 0,1:52:48.43,1:52:52.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Similarly, the Abbot of Cluny,\NPeter the Venerable,
Dialogue: 0,1:52:53.04,1:52:55.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,knew about paper but said,
Dialogue: 0,1:52:55.22,1:52:58.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Oh, it was really disgusting \Nthat they made this stuff
Dialogue: 0,1:52:58.27,1:53:04.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"from vile materials rather than \Nthe pure reeds of the riverbed,"
Dialogue: 0,1:53:04.60,1:53:06.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— meaning papyrus —
Dialogue: 0,1:53:06.03,1:53:09.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"or the skins of pure animals."
Dialogue: 0,1:53:09.40,1:53:11.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And he was worried that paper\Ncould be made
Dialogue: 0,1:53:11.83,1:53:14.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from dirty or unclean things.
Dialogue: 0,1:53:15.10,1:53:17.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But Europe's growing middle class
Dialogue: 0,1:53:17.40,1:53:20.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was not concerned\Nwith paper's cleanliness.
Dialogue: 0,1:53:23.06,1:53:27.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A single parchment book needed \N200 animal skins and cost a fortune.
Dialogue: 0,1:53:30.97,1:53:35.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as it happened, geography\Nhad given Europeans the edge
Dialogue: 0,1:53:35.22,1:53:37.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in mass-producing paper.
Dialogue: 0,1:53:43.16,1:53:46.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The rivers in the Middle East \Ntended not to flow fast enough
Dialogue: 0,1:53:46.100,1:53:49.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to create enough water power,
Dialogue: 0,1:53:49.86,1:53:53.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,whereas the greater variability \Nin European terrain
Dialogue: 0,1:53:53.32,1:53:56.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,meant that you could harness\Nthe water power more efficiently
Dialogue: 0,1:53:56.57,1:53:59.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to make more pulp more quickly.
Dialogue: 0,1:54:12.44,1:54:16.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Europeans also had \Na ready supply of linen rags.
Dialogue: 0,1:54:19.47,1:54:21.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the late Middle Ages,
Dialogue: 0,1:54:21.72,1:54:26.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a new way of processing linen\Nhad been developed
Dialogue: 0,1:54:26.13,1:54:28.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,using something called the flax breaker,
Dialogue: 0,1:54:29.06,1:54:32.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which meant that there was\Na lot more linen being made from flax
Dialogue: 0,1:54:32.82,1:54:36.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and made into people's underwear.
Dialogue: 0,1:54:42.95,1:54:46.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Linen underwear was lot more comfortable\Nthan woollen underwear
Dialogue: 0,1:54:46.59,1:54:48.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it didn't scratch,
Dialogue: 0,1:54:48.28,1:54:50.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and so, linen became very, very popular
Dialogue: 0,1:54:50.70,1:54:53.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and became the source \Nof rags for papermaking.
Dialogue: 0,1:55:00.19,1:55:03.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the late Middle Ages,\NItalian hill towns
Dialogue: 0,1:55:03.19,1:55:05.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like Fabriano and Amalfi
Dialogue: 0,1:55:05.21,1:55:08.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,had become Europe's\Nleading paper manufacturers
Dialogue: 0,1:55:08.47,1:55:12.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,shipping tons of paper\Nto businessmen throughout Europe.
Dialogue: 0,1:55:14.67,1:55:17.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this mass production of cheap paper
Dialogue: 0,1:55:17.14,1:55:20.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was changing Europe\Nin other profound ways.
Dialogue: 0,1:55:22.60,1:55:26.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of the most interesting\Ndocuments that I've seen,
Dialogue: 0,1:55:26.72,1:55:28.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or seen photographs of,
Dialogue: 0,1:55:28.51,1:55:32.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is a poem by Petrarch, the Italian poet.
Dialogue: 0,1:55:35.18,1:55:39.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's on paper and it is crossed out.
Dialogue: 0,1:55:42.29,1:55:45.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He wrote out the poem \Nand then he changed his mind
Dialogue: 0,1:55:45.44,1:55:48.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and he put in a better word.
Dialogue: 0,1:55:49.36,1:55:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, he was able to compose, \Nin effect, on paper,
Dialogue: 0,1:55:54.52,1:55:57.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as opposed to composing it in his mind,
Dialogue: 0,1:55:57.30,1:56:00.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,repeating it over and over again \Nuntil he got it perfect
Dialogue: 0,1:56:00.32,1:56:04.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then putting down a fair copy \Non the final expensive material.
Dialogue: 0,1:56:05.10,1:56:07.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is something\Nyou wouldn't do on parchment
Dialogue: 0,1:56:07.40,1:56:09.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it was too expensive.
Dialogue: 0,1:56:09.52,1:56:11.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You'd have to scrape it off.
Dialogue: 0,1:56:12.77,1:56:16.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Paper allowed all sorts\Nof new ways of doing things.
Dialogue: 0,1:56:26.83,1:56:28.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It seems to me that it's no accident
Dialogue: 0,1:56:28.82,1:56:33.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the art of drawing really develops\Nin the 15th century in Italy.
Dialogue: 0,1:56:38.28,1:56:41.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Paper allowed an artist\Nto actually do a drawing
Dialogue: 0,1:56:42.26,1:56:45.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and work out an idea in front of his eyes
Dialogue: 0,1:56:46.12,1:56:50.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and preserve it for later use, \Nor to look at it and say,
Dialogue: 0,1:56:50.68,1:56:53.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"I'll change this; I'll change that."
Dialogue: 0,1:56:53.55,1:56:56.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And save it and make\Na copy of the drawing.
Dialogue: 0,1:56:56.31,1:56:58.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we know \Nthat Michelangelo, for example,
Dialogue: 0,1:56:58.44,1:57:00.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,did drawings of his drawings
Dialogue: 0,1:57:00.11,1:57:02.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or did drawings\Nof other people's drawings.
Dialogue: 0,1:57:05.10,1:57:07.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This wouldn't have been possible\Nwith parchment
Dialogue: 0,1:57:07.99,1:57:11.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it was too expensive\Nto waste in this way.
Dialogue: 0,1:57:13.19,1:57:16.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Meanwhile, in Asia, the country\Nthat had given paper to the world
Dialogue: 0,1:57:16.92,1:57:19.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,had developed a technology\Nthat had turned book production
Dialogue: 0,1:57:20.01,1:57:24.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from a laborious job for scribes\Ninto a standardized process:
Dialogue: 0,1:57:25.68,1:57:27.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Printing.
Dialogue: 0,1:57:28.70,1:57:32.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the ninth century CE, \Nthe time of the Tang Dynasty,
Dialogue: 0,1:57:32.98,1:57:37.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese printers were printing book pages\Ncarved from a single block of wood.
Dialogue: 0,1:57:40.22,1:57:42.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The world's oldest printed book
Dialogue: 0,1:57:42.13,1:57:45.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is this Chinese copy\Nof the Buddhist Diamond Sutra
Dialogue: 0,1:57:46.05,1:57:49.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,printed in the year 868 CE
Dialogue: 0,1:57:51.12,1:57:54.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some 400 years later, around 1300,
Dialogue: 0,1:57:54.24,1:57:58.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Asian woodblock printing \Nhad traveled the Silk Road to the West.
Dialogue: 0,1:58:00.48,1:58:04.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But by then, China had invented\Na more efficient way of printing.
Dialogue: 0,1:58:10.22,1:58:13.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Instead of carving a single wooden block\Ninto a book page,
Dialogue: 0,1:58:13.83,1:58:18.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,printers engraved pieces of clay\Nwith individual Chinese characters,
Dialogue: 0,1:58:20.84,1:58:23.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,baked the clay letters to harden them,
Dialogue: 0,1:58:26.18,1:58:29.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then arranged them in a frame\Nto create a book page.
Dialogue: 0,1:58:37.61,1:58:40.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The earliest known use of moveable type.
Dialogue: 0,1:58:45.61,1:58:48.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then, in the year 1440,
Dialogue: 0,1:58:48.16,1:58:50.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Johannes Gutenberg,
Dialogue: 0,1:58:50.16,1:58:52.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a goldsmith in the German city of Mainz,
Dialogue: 0,1:58:52.62,1:58:55.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,came up with a new way of printing.
Dialogue: 0,1:58:57.31,1:59:00.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Gutenberg began with a screw press,
Dialogue: 0,1:59:03.16,1:59:06.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a wooden screw that pushed \Na plate down on a flat surface
Dialogue: 0,1:59:08.33,1:59:11.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,invented by the Romans to make wine
Dialogue: 0,1:59:11.49,1:59:15.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and used in Gutenberg's time\Nto make woodblock prints.
Dialogue: 0,1:59:17.16,1:59:19.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He made his own moveable type
Dialogue: 0,1:59:19.23,1:59:22.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by punching letters out of metal
Dialogue: 0,1:59:22.100,1:59:26.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and casting them using a hand mould\Nhe'd invented himself.
Dialogue: 0,1:59:30.48,1:59:34.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He devised a system to quickly\Ncomposing lines of type in trays.
Dialogue: 0,1:59:38.03,1:59:41.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And he invented \Na new oil-based printing ink
Dialogue: 0,1:59:41.04,1:59:43.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that transferred easily to metal type.
Dialogue: 0,1:59:49.02,1:59:51.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Gutenberg's new printing process
Dialogue: 0,1:59:51.06,1:59:55.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was much faster and more efficient \Nthan Asian printing techniques.
Dialogue: 0,1:59:58.27,2:00:01.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But its biggest advantage \Nmay simply have been this:
Dialogue: 0,2:00:03.15,2:00:05.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Latin alphabet.
Dialogue: 0,2:00:09.81,2:00:12.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In Chinese you have many characters,
Dialogue: 0,2:00:12.91,2:00:17.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and so you have to have \Nlike 6,000 individual characters
Dialogue: 0,2:00:17.88,2:00:20.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in order to print something.
Dialogue: 0,2:00:23.18,2:00:26.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In Europe, where you have\Nthe Latin alphabet
Dialogue: 0,2:00:26.68,2:00:30.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with individual letters\Nthat are not connected to each other
Dialogue: 0,2:00:30.63,2:00:32.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you only have 26 of them
Dialogue: 0,2:00:33.07,2:00:36.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you have upper case and lower case,\Ncapital letters and small letters,
Dialogue: 0,2:00:37.50,2:00:41.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you don't really need that many\Nto write out a text.
Dialogue: 0,2:00:47.94,2:00:51.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If ever a new technology\Nre-wrote human History,
Dialogue: 0,2:00:51.52,2:00:54.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it was Gutenberg's printing press.
Dialogue: 0,2:00:54.88,2:00:58.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Within a few years of Gutenberg's\Nfirst printing run,
Dialogue: 0,2:00:58.54,2:01:02.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,millions of Europeans\Nwere reading the Bible
Dialogue: 0,2:01:02.24,2:01:06.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and other best-selling books \Ntranslated into their own languages,
Dialogue: 0,2:01:10.04,2:01:12.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,something we take for granted,
Dialogue: 0,2:01:12.56,2:01:16.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but in 15th-century Europe,\Nit was revolutionary.
Dialogue: 0,2:01:16.59,2:01:19.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Working together,\Npaper and the printing press
Dialogue: 0,2:01:19.50,2:01:22.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,had achieved something\Nnever done before.
Dialogue: 0,2:01:23.75,2:01:26.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They had democratized knowledge.
Dialogue: 0,2:01:27.60,2:01:32.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I have to say that if Gutenberg\Nhad not invented the letterpress,
Dialogue: 0,2:01:32.64,2:01:37.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then someone else\Nwould have presumably invented it.
Dialogue: 0,2:01:38.11,2:01:43.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because at that time, there was \Nan enormous demand for written texts.
Dialogue: 0,2:01:46.38,2:01:49.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,For thousand of years it had been enough
Dialogue: 0,2:01:49.30,2:01:55.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for monks to copy manuscripts\Nin monasteries by hand.
Dialogue: 0,2:01:55.86,2:01:59.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But this system was \Nso to speak a one-way road.
Dialogue: 0,2:01:59.15,2:02:02.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The pope could distribute his information
Dialogue: 0,2:02:02.15,2:02:04.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but those that were on the bottom
Dialogue: 0,2:02:04.24,2:02:07.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could not distribute\Ntheir information to the top
Dialogue: 0,2:02:08.27,2:02:12.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In all of Europe, a new class\Nhad established itself
Dialogue: 0,2:02:12.86,2:02:16.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which were the merchants, \Nbourgeoisie that was newly arising
Dialogue: 0,2:02:18.03,2:02:20.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They created a whole new market
Dialogue: 0,2:02:20.81,2:02:23.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where the written word\Nwas in very high demand
Dialogue: 0,2:02:25.03,2:02:27.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Europe's new demand for books
Dialogue: 0,2:02:27.13,2:02:31.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and its new ability to mass-produce books\Nto meet that demand
Dialogue: 0,2:02:31.82,2:02:35.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would soon have enormous consequences.
Dialogue: 0,2:02:37.16,2:02:41.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In Germany, a firebrand monk\Nnamed Martin Luther
Dialogue: 0,2:02:41.49,2:02:43.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,wrote a list of 95 proposals
Dialogue: 0,2:02:43.76,2:02:46.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for reforming what Luther denounced
Dialogue: 0,2:02:46.18,2:02:49.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as the corrupt practices\Nof the Catholic Church.
Dialogue: 0,2:02:52.08,2:02:54.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thanks to paper and the printing press,
Dialogue: 0,2:02:54.87,2:02:59.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,his ideas spread like wildfire\Nacross Germany and Switzerland.
Dialogue: 0,2:03:00.62,2:03:03.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so, began the Protestant Reformation,
Dialogue: 0,2:03:03.91,2:03:08.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a spiritual revolt that ended \NCatholicism's tousand-year monopoly
Dialogue: 0,2:03:08.86,2:03:11.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the European soul.
Dialogue: 0,2:03:16.15,2:03:18.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And some other best-selling books
Dialogue: 0,2:03:18.15,2:03:21.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,helped an Italian\Nliving in Spain realize his dream.
Dialogue: 0,2:03:25.74,2:03:28.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,His name was Cristobal Colon,
Dialogue: 0,2:03:28.38,2:03:31.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and he was deeply disturbed\Nthat the holy cities of Christendom
Dialogue: 0,2:03:31.76,2:03:35.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,had fallen under the rule \Nof the Ottoman Turks.
Dialogue: 0,2:03:38.72,2:03:42.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Colon drew up plans for a new Crusade\Nto liberate Jerusalem.
Dialogue: 0,2:03:44.64,2:03:47.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,To fund it, he decided to travel to Asia
Dialogue: 0,2:03:47.52,2:03:50.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to trade for spices and other luxury goods
Dialogue: 0,2:03:50.66,2:03:53.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,he could sell \Nfor a large profit back home.
Dialogue: 0,2:04:00.03,2:04:03.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the Ottoman Empire\Nhad blocked Europeans from the Silk Road.
Dialogue: 0,2:04:06.98,2:04:10.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Colon needed to find a new route to Asia.
Dialogue: 0,2:04:14.88,2:04:17.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,His deep study of two books,
Dialogue: 0,2:04:17.98,2:04:20.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"The Travels of Marco Polo"
Dialogue: 0,2:04:21.36,2:04:25.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the ancient Greek \Nauthor Ptolemy's "Geography,"
Dialogue: 0,2:04:25.01,2:04:27.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,convinced him that he could find Asia
Dialogue: 0,2:04:27.23,2:04:30.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by sailing West across the Atlantic.
Dialogue: 0,2:04:32.12,2:04:35.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when he landed\Nin the Americas in 1492,
Dialogue: 0,2:04:35.43,2:04:39.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Colon, known to history \Nas Christopher Columbus,
Dialogue: 0,2:04:39.66,2:04:42.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was sure he'd found it.
Dialogue: 0,2:04:47.93,2:04:53.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In fact, it wouldn't be until 1498\Nthat the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama
Dialogue: 0,2:04:53.68,2:04:57.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,rounded Africa's Cape of Good Hope \Nand sailed east to India,
Dialogue: 0,2:05:01.22,2:05:04.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,discovering the true sea route to Asia.
Dialogue: 0,2:05:06.57,2:05:11.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the new world Columbus had given Spain\Nproved to have riches of its own.
Dialogue: 0,2:05:14.77,2:05:17.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the middle of the 16th century,
Dialogue: 0,2:05:17.35,2:05:20.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Portuguese had established\Ngood trading relations
Dialogue: 0,2:05:20.18,2:05:23.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with China in Guangzhou and Macau.
Dialogue: 0,2:05:25.34,2:05:29.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And Spain's American colonies\Nwere sending so much silver home
Dialogue: 0,2:05:29.58,2:05:32.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that there was hardly \Nany room to store it.
Dialogue: 0,2:05:34.94,2:05:37.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Spain was sending it\Non to northern Europe,
Dialogue: 0,2:05:37.48,2:05:41.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,especially the Netherlands,\Nas payment for trade goods.
Dialogue: 0,2:05:43.51,2:05:46.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Their pockets bursting \Nwith American silver,
Dialogue: 0,2:05:46.41,2:05:50.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Europeans became addicted\Nto two Asian luxuries.
Dialogue: 0,2:05:52.96,2:05:57.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One was porcelain, \Nan extraordinary ceramic
Dialogue: 0,2:05:58.63,2:06:01.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made by firing a soft white clay\Ncalled kaolin
Dialogue: 0,2:06:01.82,2:06:06.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at very high temperatures,\Nwell over 1,000 degrees Celsius.
Dialogue: 0,2:06:09.10,2:06:11.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,China had been making porcelain for export
Dialogue: 0,2:06:11.82,2:06:15.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and trading it throughout \NAsia and the Middle East
Dialogue: 0,2:06:15.34,2:06:18.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,since at least the ninth century CE
Dialogue: 0,2:06:20.67,2:06:26.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the 17th century, the Dutch captured\Ntwo Portuguese ships filled with porcelain
Dialogue: 0,2:06:28.79,2:06:31.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and held a giant porcelain auction.
Dialogue: 0,2:06:33.70,2:06:39.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was the beginning of Europe's \N300-year obsession with Chinese ceramics
Dialogue: 0,2:06:39.71,2:06:44.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or, as they became known \Nin Europe and America, "fine China."
Dialogue: 0,2:06:45.39,2:06:49.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was a status symbol for the West,
Dialogue: 0,2:06:50.76,2:06:54.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they had never seen\Nanything like that before.
Dialogue: 0,2:06:54.37,2:06:58.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But also, they certainly \Ndidn't know how it was made.
Dialogue: 0,2:06:59.66,2:07:01.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Porcelain imports were indispensable
Dialogue: 0,2:07:01.93,2:07:05.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to consuming another Chinese \Ntrade good craved by Europeans:
Dialogue: 0,2:07:05.77,2:07:06.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Tea.
Dialogue: 0,2:07:09.14,2:07:12.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Like porcelain, tea had been\Na profitable Chinese export
Dialogue: 0,2:07:12.56,2:07:15.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,since at least the ninth century
Dialogue: 0,2:07:17.22,2:07:20.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to the Middle East but not to Europe.
Dialogue: 0,2:07:21.56,2:07:25.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Portuguese began\Ntrading for it in the 16th century.
Dialogue: 0,2:07:31.08,2:07:36.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In 1657, a London merchant \Nsold the first tea in Britain.
Dialogue: 0,2:07:38.20,2:07:43.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the year 1700, tea-drinking \Nhad become a British obsession
Dialogue: 0,2:07:45.17,2:07:48.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,heavily promoted \Nby the British East India Company,
Dialogue: 0,2:07:48.38,2:07:51.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which traded British textiles to China
Dialogue: 0,2:07:51.59,2:07:55.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and needed a profitable luxury good\Nto bring back to Britain.
Dialogue: 0,2:07:59.10,2:08:02.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as Chinese tea began\Nmoving West to Europe,
Dialogue: 0,2:08:02.77,2:08:06.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Europeans began trading\Nexotic new foods to China.
Dialogue: 0,2:08:09.99,2:08:14.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the 17th century, dozens \Nof never-before seen food crops
Dialogue: 0,2:08:14.40,2:08:16.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from the Americas
Dialogue: 0,2:08:16.30,2:08:18.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,— potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn,
Dialogue: 0,2:08:19.02,2:08:22.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,peanuts, pineapples, \Nchilies, and tomatoes —
Dialogue: 0,2:08:22.70,2:08:25.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,began appearing in Chinese markets.
Dialogue: 0,2:08:27.29,2:08:31.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some of these new foods offered more\Nthan just the appeal of the exotic.
Dialogue: 0,2:08:35.45,2:08:38.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Corn, potatoes, and sweet potatoes
Dialogue: 0,2:08:38.09,2:08:40.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,grew in harsh New World environments
Dialogue: 0,2:08:40.61,2:08:43.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like the South American Andes.
Dialogue: 0,2:08:43.98,2:08:47.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chinese farmers soon discovered\Nthese hardy crops
Dialogue: 0,2:08:47.19,2:08:51.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would survive the frequent droughts \Nthat wiped out many native crops
Dialogue: 0,2:08:51.99,2:08:55.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,starving large numbers of Chinese.
Dialogue: 0,2:08:58.08,2:09:00.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's no coincidence\Nthat in the 17th century,
Dialogue: 0,2:09:00.100,2:09:03.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,after the introduction \Nof drought-resistant crops,
Dialogue: 0,2:09:03.98,2:09:06.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,China's population began to grow
Dialogue: 0,2:09:09.89,2:09:14.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and kept growing until China\Nbecame the world's most populous nation.
Dialogue: 0,2:09:16.38,2:09:20.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the new sea routes brought \Neven more to China from the West.
Dialogue: 0,2:09:26.44,2:09:31.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,An Italian named Matteo Ricci\Narrived in China in 1582
Dialogue: 0,2:09:32.100,2:09:36.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and spent the rest of his life there.
Dialogue: 0,2:09:36.80,2:09:39.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Ricci was a Catholic missionary,
Dialogue: 0,2:09:40.57,2:09:43.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and his mission to China produced
Dialogue: 0,2:09:43.15,2:09:46.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one of history's most enlightened\Nmeetings of minds.
Dialogue: 0,2:09:48.06,2:09:51.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Ricci learned to speak, \Nread, and write Chinese,
Dialogue: 0,2:09:51.47,2:09:55.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and formed deep friendships \Nwith Chinese scholars.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of Matteo Ricci's closest collaborators and first converts to Catholicism\N2:10:03\Nwas the mathematician Xu Guangqi. AGNES: My ancestor Xu Guangqi,\N2:10:11\Nwho is known in Vatican history as Paul Hsu, met him around the time when he first came to China.\N2:10:20\NAnd in 1603, my ancestor converted to Roman Catholicism.\N2:10:28\NNARRATOR: Working together, Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi translated works from\N2:10:34\Nthe ancient Greek mathematician Euclid and other classics of Western science and mathematics into Chinese.\N2:10:42\NThey also translated Confucian writings into Latin.\N2:10:48\NRicci wrote to his superiors in Europe, asking them to send more missionaries to China,\N2:10:53\Nbut only their smartest men. In China, he wrote, "We are dealing with a people both intelligent and learned."\N2:11:03\NXu Guangqi himself was an astronomer, a highly accomplished astronomer and a mathematician.\N2:11:12\NBut the introduction of Western science opened his eyes to a different way of thinking,\N2:11:21\Na different way of approaching natural phenomena.\N2:11:26\NNARRATOR: Matteo Ricci was a Jesuit, a member of the Society of Jesus, a new Catholic order founded on the principles\N2:11:34\Nof the European Renaissance. Jesuit priests were trained in science and mathematics\N2:11:41\Nas well as in theology. As missionaries, they respected other cultures\N2:11:46\Nand worked to integrate Christianity with non-Christian beliefs.\N2:11:56\NFrom the 16th until the 19th century, nearly a thousand Jesuits worked in China\N2:12:02\Nteaching everything from engineering to mathematics to geography and sending back translated classics\N2:12:09\Nof Chinese learning to Europe, giving Europe its first in-depth knowledge\N2:12:14\Nof Chinese civilization and China its first in-depth knowledge of the West.\N2:12:24\NChinese and Europeans became more and more fascinated with each other's civilizations.\N2:12:30\NKing Louis XIV of France sent French Jesuits to the mission in China.\N2:12:37\NAnd Chinese emperors appointed Jesuits to important government positions.\N2:12:45\NFor more than 100 years, Jesuit astronomers directed the Imperial Astronomical Bureau.\N2:12:53\NOne of them, the German Johann Adam Schall von Bell, helped create a new Chinese calendar\N2:12:59\Nthat predicted solar and lunar eclipses with more accuracy.\N2:13:06\NHe also introduced his Chinese colleagues to a new European invention, the telescope.\N2:13:17\NThe Belgian priest Ferdinand Verbiest built an aqueduct, made European-style cannons for the army,\N2:13:24\Nand built a steam-powered vehicle for the emperor considered by some to be the world's earliest automobile.\N2:13:33\NIn 1674, Verbiest presented the emperor with a new map of the world.\N2:13:40\NThe collaborative product of European and Chinese knowledge, it was more than just a map.\N2:13:47\NIt was an expression of a new worldview. A worldview based on science, exploration,\N2:13:55\Nand confidence in the human ability to discover, to invent, and to create a better world.\N2:14:03\NA worldview that saw the world as one. Arguably the most famous scholar\N2:14:09\Nof that age is Voltaire. And in his essay "Sur le Moeurs"\N2:14:17\Nwhich was first published in 1756,\N2:14:22\Nhe argued that China was the paragon\N2:14:29\Nof Enlighted monarchy ruled by intellectuals.\N2:14:39\NIt challenges the fundamental notion that the Christian European world\N2:14:45\Nwas the beginning and the centre of civilization.\N2:15:00\NChina, in Voltaire's mind, was a civilization ruled by reason\N2:15:07\Nand ruled by men promoted through education...\N2:15:14\NThrough virtue, and through their scholarly accomplishments,\N2:15:22\Ntheir merits; not by hereditary rights.\N2:15:28\N(gunfire, faint shouting) NARRATOR: In Voltaire's time, Europeans were fighting their hereditary kings\N2:15:34\Nfor the right to rule themselves. By 1800, political revolutions in Britain, America, and France\N2:15:44\Nhad ended centuries of absolute monarchy.\N2:15:49\NNew technologies like the mechanical loom and the steam engine and the rise of industrial capitalism\N2:15:56\Nwere connecting the far corners of the world. And an ancient Chinese invention\N2:16:02\Nthat had spread westward centuries earlier was playing a critical role. (men shouting faintly, gunfire)\N2:16:15\NNARRATOR: Gunpowder had made modern warfare possible. (cannon booms)\N2:16:21\N(gunshot)\N2:16:28\NNARRATOR: And in mineral-rich areas like France's Vosges Mountains, it was helping in a different way\N2:16:34\Nto create the modern world. At the beginning of the 17th century,\N2:16:41\Nthese mountains were honeycombed with mines and crowded with miners from all over Europe\N2:16:47\Nchasing rumours of riches underground.\N2:16:58\N(Francis speaking French)\N2:17:16\N(water dripping)\N2:17:24\NNARRATOR: In the accounting books of the Thillot Mine, archaeologists discovered an entry from the year 1617\N2:17:32\Nrecording the purchase of gunpowder to do something revolutionary--\N2:17:38\Nblast a mine tunnel from the living rock. (water dripping)\N2:17:44\N(speaking French)